The doctrine of predestination holds that God has predetermined from eternity who will be saved and who will be damned. This teaching is not a later theological invention but is explicitly stated in multiple New Testament passages, particularly in the writings of the apostle Paul.1 These texts have generated centuries of theological debate, dividing Christian traditions into fundamentally incompatible positions on free will, divine sovereignty, and the nature of salvation.2
Ephesians: Chosen before creation
The Epistle to the Ephesians opens with one of the clearest statements of predestination in the New Testament. Paul writes:
"Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who has blessed us in Christ with every spiritual blessing in the heavenly places, even as he chose us in him before the foundation of the world, that we should be holy and blameless before him. In love he predestined us for adoption to himself as sons through Jesus Christ, according to the purpose of his will." Ephesians 1:3-5 (English Standard Version)3
The Greek verb translated "chose" is "exelexato" (ἐξελέξατο), meaning to select or pick out from among others.4 The verb "predestined" is "proorisas" (προορίσας), from "proorizō," meaning to decide beforehand, to predetermine, or to foreordain.5 The temporal phrase "before the foundation of the world" (pro katabolēs kosmou) indicates that this choosing occurred before creation itself, making it logically prior to any human decision or action.3
The text states that God chose specific people ("us") and predestined them for adoption as children. The language is active and specific: God chose, God predestined, according to his purpose and will.6 Later in the same chapter, Paul reiterates:
"In him we have obtained an inheritance, having been predestined according to the purpose of him who works all things according to the counsel of his will." Ephesians 1:11 (English Standard Version)7
The phrase "works all things according to the counsel of his will" (tou ta panta energountos kata tēn boulēn tou thelēmatos autou) presents God as actively accomplishing everything according to his predetermined plan and purpose.7 The question naturally arises: if God chose and predestined certain people before creation, what happened to those not chosen?
Romans 8: The golden chain
In Romans 8, Paul describes what Reformed theologians have called the "golden chain" of salvation, a sequence of divine actions linking God's foreknowledge to final glorification:
"For those whom he foreknew he also predestined to be conformed to the image of his Son, in order that he might be the firstborn among many brothers. And those whom he predestined he also called, and those whom he called he also justified, and those whom he justified he also glorified." Romans 8:29-30 (English Standard Version)8
This passage presents salvation as a sequence of divine actions: foreknowledge, predestination, calling, justification, and glorification. Each step follows inevitably from the previous one, forming an unbroken chain.9 Notably, the passage uses past tense verbs throughout, including "glorified," suggesting that from God's eternal perspective, the salvation of the elect is already complete.10
The meaning of "foreknew" (proegnō) is contested. Some argue it means God merely knew in advance who would choose him, making predestination conditional on foreseen faith.11 However, in biblical usage, "know" (ginōskō and its compounds) often indicates intimate relational knowledge or choice, not merely cognitive awareness.12 When God says "I never knew you" to the condemned in Matthew 7:23, he clearly does not mean he lacked information about them; he means he never chose or acknowledged them as his own.13 Similarly, "foreknow" in Romans 8:29 likely means to choose or set affection upon in advance, which is why it leads directly to predestination.14
Romans 9: Potter and clay
Romans 9 contains the most extended treatment of divine election in the New Testament and the most difficult passages for those who wish to preserve robust human free will. Paul addresses the question of why many ethnic Jews have rejected Jesus as Messiah while many Gentiles have believed. His answer centers on God's absolute sovereign choice.15
Paul begins with the example of Isaac and Ishmael, then moves to Jacob and Esau:
"Though they were not yet born and had done nothing either good or bad—in order that God's purpose of election might continue, not because of works but because of him who calls—she was told, 'The older will serve the younger.' As it is written, 'Jacob I loved, but Esau I hated.'" Romans 9:11-13 (English Standard Version)16
The timing is crucial: God made his choice "before they were born and had done nothing either good or bad." This explicitly rules out any interpretation that God's choice was based on foreseen faith, foreseen works, or any other quality in the individuals themselves.17 The purpose clause "in order that God's purpose of election might continue" indicates that the point is precisely to demonstrate that election depends solely on God's call, not on human choice or merit.15
Paul anticipates the obvious objection: "Is there injustice on God's part?" His response is not to deny that this seems unjust by human standards, but to assert God's absolute right to choose:
"What shall we say then? Is there injustice on God's part? By no means! For he says to Moses, 'I will have mercy on whom I have mercy, and I will have compassion on whom I have compassion.' So then it depends not on human will or exertion, but on God, who has mercy." Romans 9:14-16 (English Standard Version)18
The statement "it depends not on human will or exertion, but on God, who has mercy" directly contradicts any notion that salvation ultimately rests on human choice. The Greek construction is emphatic: "ara oun ou tou thelontos oude tou trechontos alla tou eleontos theou"—literally, "so then, not of the one willing nor of the one running, but of God showing mercy."18
Paul then moves to the example of Pharaoh:
"For the Scripture says to Pharaoh, 'For this very purpose I have raised you up, that I might show my power in you, and that my name might be proclaimed in all the earth.' So then he has mercy on whom he wills, and he hardens whom he wills." Romans 9:17-18 (English Standard Version)19
This passage states that God raised up Pharaoh specifically to harden his heart and display divine power through his destruction. The text says God "hardens whom he wills," using active language for God's role in hardening, not merely permissive language.20
Paul again anticipates the objection—if God hardens whom he wills, how can he find fault, since who can resist his will?21 His response is not to resolve the tension but to assert God's sovereign rights:
"But who are you, O man, to answer back to God? Will what is molded say to its molder, 'Why have you made me like this?' Has the potter no right over the clay, to make out of the same lump one vessel for honorable use and another for dishonorable use?" Romans 9:20-21 (English Standard Version)22
The potter-clay metaphor emphasizes God's absolute sovereignty and the creature's lack of grounds to question the creator's choices. Paul continues:
"What if God, desiring to show his wrath and to make known his power, has endured with much patience vessels of wrath prepared for destruction, in order to make known the riches of his glory for vessels of mercy, which he has prepared beforehand for glory?" Romans 9:22-23 (English Standard Version)23
This passage speaks of "vessels of wrath prepared for destruction" and "vessels of mercy, which he has prepared beforehand for glory." The language is parallel: some vessels are prepared for destruction, others prepared for glory, and the preparation in both cases appears to be divine.24 The purpose is to display both God's wrath and his mercy—the damned serve to magnify the salvation of the elect.25
Key predestination passages in Paul's letters3, 8, 16, 23
| Passage | Key phrase | Element emphasized |
|---|---|---|
| Ephesians 1:4-5 | "He chose us before the foundation of the world" | Pre-temporal divine choice |
| Romans 8:29-30 | "Those whom he foreknew he also predestined" | Unbroken chain of salvation |
| Romans 9:11-13 | "Not yet born and had done nothing" | Choice independent of works |
| Romans 9:15-16 | "Not of human will or exertion" | Exclusion of human agency |
| Romans 9:22-23 | "Vessels prepared for destruction" | Double predestination |
Supporting passages
While Romans 8-9 and Ephesians 1 contain the most systematic treatments, predestinarian themes appear throughout the New Testament. In the Gospel of John, Jesus repeatedly states that the Father has given certain people to him and that he will lose none of them:26
"All that the Father gives me will come to me, and whoever comes to me I will never cast out. For I have come down from heaven, not to do my own will but the will of him who sent me. And this is the will of him who sent me, that I should lose nothing of all that he has given me, but raise it up on the last day." John 6:37-39 (English Standard Version)26
In the same discourse, Jesus says, "No one can come to me unless the Father who sent me draws him. And I will raise him up on the last day."27 The word "draws" (helkysē) is a strong term meaning to drag or compel, the same word used for dragging a fishing net full of fish (John 21:6, 11).28 The implication is that those whom the Father draws will come, and those not drawn cannot come.29
Acts 13:48 records the Gentile response to Paul's preaching in Antioch: "And when the Gentiles heard this, they began rejoicing and glorifying the word of the Lord, and as many as were appointed to eternal life believed."30 The Greek verb "tetagmenoi" (τεταγμένοι) is a perfect passive participle meaning "having been appointed" or "having been ordained," indicating that appointment to eternal life preceded and resulted in belief, not vice versa.31
Second Thessalonians 2:13 states: "But we ought always to give thanks to God for you, brothers beloved by the Lord, because God chose you as the firstfruits to be saved, through sanctification by the Spirit and belief in the truth."32 Here again, God's choice is presented as the foundational cause of salvation, with sanctification and belief as means or results of that choice.33
Theological interpretations
Christian theologians have developed two main interpretative frameworks to address these texts: Calvinism (or Reformed theology) and Arminianism, named after John Calvin and Jacobus Arminius respectively, though the debate predates both men.2
Calvinism: Unconditional election
Reformed theology takes these passages at face value as teaching unconditional election and double predestination. According to this view, God chose certain individuals for salvation before creation, not based on any foreseen faith or merit, but solely according to his sovereign will.34 God also passed over others, leaving them in their sin and destining them for just condemnation.35
The Westminster Confession of Faith, a foundational Reformed document from 1646, states:
"By the decree of God, for the manifestation of His glory, some men and angels are predestinated unto everlasting life; and others foreordained to everlasting death. These angels and men, thus predestinated, and foreordained, are particularly and unchangeably designed, and their number so certain and definite, that it cannot be either increased or diminished." Westminster Confession of Faith 3.3-436
John Calvin himself argued that predestination is clearly taught in Scripture and must be accepted even if it seems harsh: "We shall never be clearly convinced as we ought to be, that our salvation flows from the fountain of God's free mercy, till we are acquainted with his eternal election."37 Calvin acknowledged the doctrine's difficulty but insisted that human reason must submit to divine revelation.38
From the Reformed perspective, predestination solves the problem of why some believe and others do not, gives all glory to God for salvation, and is the only reading consistent with Paul's emphatic statements that salvation depends "not on human will or exertion, but on God."39 The damned receive justice for their sins; the elect receive unmerited mercy.40
Arminianism: Conditional election
Arminian theology, articulated in the Remonstrance of 1610 and developed by subsequent theologians, interprets these passages differently.41 According to this view, God's predestination is based on foreknowledge of who will freely choose to believe in Christ. God looked forward through time, saw who would have faith, and on that basis elected them to salvation.42
Arminians interpret Romans 8:29's "those whom he foreknew" to mean those whose faith God foresaw, making foreknowledge the basis of predestination.43 They argue that passages about election refer to corporate election (God chose the church as a body) or to election to service rather than to individual eternal destinies.44 When the Bible speaks of God choosing Jacob over Esau, Arminians often argue this refers to national destinies and roles in salvation history, not individual eternal fates.45
Arminians emphasize biblical passages that seem to attribute a role to human choice, such as "whoever believes in him shall not perish" (John 3:16) and "whoever will, let him take the water of life freely" (Revelation 22:17).46, 47 They argue that if predestination is unconditional, evangelism is pointless, moral responsibility is undermined, and God becomes the author of sin.48
From the Arminian perspective, God genuinely desires all people to be saved (1 Timothy 2:4), Christ died for all (Hebrews 2:9), and humans have libertarian free will—the ability to choose otherwise than they do.49, 50 Election is God's response to foreseen faith, not its cause.51
Other positions
Between these poles, various intermediate positions exist. Molinism, named after Luis de Molina, proposes that God has "middle knowledge"—knowledge of what any free creature would choose in any possible circumstance—and uses this knowledge to actualize a world where his chosen ends are accomplished through genuine creaturely freedom.52 Open theism denies exhaustive divine foreknowledge of free creaturely actions, arguing that the future is partly open even to God, thus preserving freedom but abandoning classical divine omniscience.53
Catholic theology historically taught predestination to salvation but not to damnation (single predestination), though thinkers like Augustine came close to double predestination, and Thomists have defended strong versions of predestination.54 Eastern Orthodox theology has generally been less systematic on this question, emphasizing mystery and divine-human synergy while avoiding the determinism of strict Calvinism and the Pelagianism of extreme Arminianism.55
Philosophical and moral problems
Regardless of which theological interpretation one adopts, the doctrine of predestination raises profound philosophical difficulties.
Free will
If God predestined who would be saved before creation, independent of any foreseen faith or choice, then human beings do not have libertarian free will with respect to salvation. They cannot do otherwise than they will do. Either they are among the elect, in which case they will inevitably come to faith, or they are not, in which case they cannot believe even if they wish to.56
Calvinists typically embrace compatibilism—the view that free will is compatible with determinism if the agent acts according to their desires, even if those desires are themselves determined.57 But critics argue this evacuates "freedom" of meaningful content. A robot programmed to desire its actions is not free in any significant sense, even though it "wants" what it does.58
Moral responsibility
Paul anticipates this objection in Romans 9:19: "You will say to me then, 'Why does he still find fault? For who can resist his will?'"21 His response is essentially to assert God's right as Creator to do as he pleases, not to explain how predestined beings can be held responsible. This is unsatisfying to many readers.59
If the reprobate were created for destruction, never given the ability to believe, and actively hardened by God, on what grounds are they morally responsible for their unbelief? It seems unjust to punish people for failing to do what they were predetermined to be unable to do.60
Divine justice and goodness
Perhaps the most troubling implication is what predestination suggests about God's character. If God could save everyone but chooses to create billions of people knowing they will suffer eternally, and if he could grant them faith but withholds it, then by any normal standard of goodness or justice, God appears morally monstrous.61
Charles Spurgeon, a prominent Calvinist preacher, acknowledged this tension: "I cannot understand it. I am not going to try to explain it. I am just going to say, 'Sir, here it is in the Bible,' and then sit down and say no more."62 But many find this response inadequate. If a doctrine makes God worse than the worst human tyrant, something seems wrong either with the doctrine or with worshiping such a God.63
Practical implications
If salvation is entirely predetermined, why evangelize? If the elect will inevitably be saved and the reprobate cannot be, preaching seems pointless. Calvinists respond that God has ordained the means as well as the ends—preaching is the means by which the elect come to faith.64 But this seems to make evangelism a charade, going through motions whose outcome is already fixed.65
There are also pastoral concerns. How should a person know whether they are elect? If they lack assurance of faith, does that mean they are reprobate? The practical anxiety this produces has troubled countless believers throughout Christian history.66
What the text says
Setting aside theological traditions and interpretive frameworks, what does the text actually say? Ephesians 1 says God chose us before the foundation of the world and predestined us for adoption. Romans 8 says those whom God foreknew he predestined, and the entire chain leads unbroken to glorification. Romans 9 says God chose Jacob over Esau before either was born or had done anything good or bad, specifically to show that election depends not on human will or exertion but on God who shows mercy. It says God hardens whom he wills. It uses the metaphor of a potter making vessels for honor and dishonor from the same lump of clay. It speaks of vessels of wrath prepared for destruction and vessels of mercy prepared for glory.
The straightforward reading of these passages is that God has predetermined who will be saved and who will be lost, that this choice was made before creation, that it does not depend on foreseen faith or merit, and that humans cannot resist God's will. This is precisely why Calvinists have consistently argued that their view is the plain teaching of Scripture, even while acknowledging its harsh implications.67
Arminians and others who wish to preserve human free will must engage in considerable interpretive effort to read these passages differently. They must argue that "chose" and "predestined" do not mean what they appear to mean, that "not of human will or exertion" allows for decisive human choice, that "vessels prepared for destruction" does not imply divine preparation, and that God's foreknowledge is logically posterior to human choice even though the text makes foreknowledge the basis of predestination.68
Neither interpretation resolves all difficulties. Calvinism makes God the author of damnation and undermines human agency. Arminianism strains the plain meaning of multiple texts and makes God's sovereignty contingent on human decisions. The tension between divine sovereignty and human responsibility may be inherent in Christian theology, not a problem to be solved but a paradox to be endured.69
For those outside the Christian tradition, the predestination debate reveals a fundamental incoherence at the heart of Christian theology. A God who creates people knowing they will be eternally damned, who could save them but chooses not to, who hardens hearts and then punishes the hardened, does not match the Christian claim that "God is love" (1 John 4:8).70 Either the Bible's teaching on predestination is true, in which case the Christian God is not all-loving, or the Christian claim about God's love is true, in which case the Bible's teaching on predestination must be rejected or reinterpreted beyond recognition.71