Evolution of Hell

Early Mesopotamian Influence: Kur

c. 2000 BCE

The Sumerian concept of Kur, a dark underworld, influenced early Near Eastern ideas of the afterlife.

"To the netherworld, land of no return, Inanna set her mind. To the dark house, dwelling of Ereshkigal's, Inanna set her mind. To the house which those who enter cannot leave."

Inanna's Descent to the Netherworld (c. 2000 BCE)

Egyptian Afterlife: Duat

c. 1550-1070 BCE

The Egyptian concept of Duat, with its system of judgment and punishment, influenced later ideas of hell.

"O you who are in charge of the scales of justice, on the day when characters are assessed, and deeds are reckoned up!"

Book of the Dead, Spell 30B (c. 1550-1070 BCE)

Greek Influence: Hades and Tartarus

c. 800-700 BCE

Greek concepts of Hades and Tartarus significantly influenced later Jewish and Christian ideas of the afterlife.

"The dead are mindless, senseless shadows flitting through the darkness of Hades."

Homer, Odyssey 10.521-525

"And the Titans were bound in a bond of peace beneath the earth, as far beneath the earth as heaven is above earth; for even so far is it from earth to Tartarus."

Hesiod, Theogony 720-725

Persian Influence: Zoroastrian Afterlife

c. 600-400 BCE

Zoroastrian concepts of judgment and punishment in the afterlife appear to have influenced Jewish and Christian thought.

"And his soul shall cross over the Bridge of the Separator; and if he be righteous, the Bridge shall seem to him wide as the height of seven spears; and if he be wicked, the Bridge shall seem to him narrow as the edge of a razor."

Vendidad, Fargard 19 (compiled c. 400 BCE, but reflecting earlier traditions)

The Myth of Er

c. 380 BCE

Found in Plato's "Republic", this myth describes the afterlife.

"And they spoke of other things I must not repeat; but those who were punished and those who were rewarded were appointed to be guides of the dead in their journey to the next world."

Plato, Republic, Book 10

More Plato

c. 350 BCE

Plato discusses the idea of posthumous punishment more.

"And after death in Hades, the men who have committed these crimes must suffer punishment."

PPlato, Gorgias, 525b

The Book of Daniel: Apocalyptic Literature

c. 165 BCE

The last verse of the Book of Daniel introduces a concept of resurrection and judgment.

"Many of those who sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, some to everlasting life, and some to shame and everlasting contempt."

Daniel 12:2 (c. 165 BCE)

Intertestamental Period: Gehenna

c. 200 BCE - 100 CE

During the intertestamental period, the concept of Gehenna as a place of punishment for the wicked emerged in Jewish thought.

"And they shall be a spectacle for the righteous and for His elect. They shall rejoice over them, because the wrath of the Lord of Spirits resteth upon them, and His sword is drunk with their blood."

1 Enoch 62:12 (c. 300-100 BCE)

Hellenistic Judaism: Hades

c. 100 BCE - 100 CE

Hellenistic Jewish writers combined Greek and Jewish concepts of the afterlife.

"The wicked descend into Hades, that abode which is fitted for their unholy intents, and which is hard to be avoided, and where they are afflicted with a more grievous and bitter punishment."

Philo, On the Creation 1:77 (c. 20 BCE - 50 CE)

Dead Sea Scrolls: Eternal Torment

c. 200 BCE - 100 CE

The Dead Sea Scrolls describe a more developed concept of eternal punishment.

"And the visitation of all who walk in this spirit shall be a multitude of plagues by the hand of all the destroying angels, everlasting damnation by the avenging wrath of the fury of God, eternal torment and endless disgrace together with shameful extinction in the fire of the dark regions."

Community Rule (1QS) 4:11-13 (c. 100 BCE)

Rabbinic Judaism: Gehinnom ("Gehenna")

c. 70 CE - 200 CE

Early rabbinic literature provides insight into contemporary Jewish thought on the afterlife.

"The wicked are judged in Gehinnom for twelve months: after twelve months their body is consumed and their soul is burned up, and the wind scatters them under the soles of the feet of the righteous."

Mishnah Eduyot 2:10 (compiled c. 200 CE, but reflecting earlier traditions)

Virgil, "Aeneid"

19 BCE

Virgil's epic poem includes a detailed description of the underworld.

"Here in front of the entrance, in the very jaws of Orcus, Grief and avenging Cares have made their bed; there pale Diseases dwell, and sad Old Age, and Fear, and ill-counselling Hunger, and loathly Want, shapes terrible to see; and Death and Toil."

Virgil, Aeneid, Book 6, lines 273-277.

The New Testament

66 - 110 CE

Jesus' teaching heavily incorporates the concept of hell.

"And if your hand or your foot causes you to sin, cut it off and throw it away. It is better for you to enter life crippled or lame than with two hands or two feet to be thrown into the eternal fire. And if your eye causes you to sin, tear it out and throw it away. It is better for you to enter life with one eye than with two eyes to be thrown into the hell of fire."

Matthew 18:8-9

"And should not you have had mercy on your fellow servant, as I had mercy on you?’ And in anger his master delivered him to the torturers, until he should pay all his debt. So also my heavenly Father will do to every one of you, if you do not forgive your brother from your heart.”

Matthew 18:33-35

"Then said the king to the servants, Bind him hand and foot, and take him away, and cast him into outer darkness; there shall be weeping and gnashing of teeth."

Matthew 22:13

“Then he will say to those on his left, Depart from me, you cursed, into the eternal fire prepared for the devil and his angels."

Matthew 25:41

“And the smoke of their torment goes up forever and ever; they have no rest day and night, those who worship the beast and his image, and whoever receives the mark of his name.”

Revelation 14:11

Apocalypse of Peter

100 - 150 CE

The Apocalypse of Peter was popular in both the East and the West, and many Christian communities considered it authoritative in the third and fourth centuries. However, it was eventually excluded from the canon. It continues to build on the concept of hell by providing gruesome depictions of the punishments for different types of sinners.

The punishment for lying:

"And there were there men and women with their eyes gouged out, being tormented by dragons of fire and demons of fire, who had in their hands fire-rods with which they struck them."

Apocalypse of Peter, Section 8

The punishment for adultery:

"And there were there men and women gnawing their own lips and being punished and receiving a red-hot iron in their eyes."

Apocalypse of Peter, Section 12

The punishment for persecution:

"And there were there men and women gnawing their tongues and having flaming fire in their mouths."

Apocalypse of Peter, Section 12