Introduction

This page compiles historical data about each apostle, evaluating the evidence for their life, ministry, and death. Sources are categorized by their historical reliability:

Peter (Simon)

Died c. 64-68 CE

Strong Evidence

Peter was one of Jesus' closest disciples and traditionally considered the leader of the apostles. His martyrdom in Rome under Emperor Nero has relatively strong historical attestation.

Sources
Problems

Paul of Tarsus

Died c. 64-68 CE

Strong Evidence

Though not one of the original Twelve, Paul was an influential apostle who wrote many New Testament epistles. His execution in Rome under Nero has strong historical attestation.

Sources
Problems

James (brother of Jesus)

Died c. 62 CE

Strong Evidence

Though not one of the Twelve, James became leader of the Jerusalem church and is considered an apostle in early Christian tradition. His martyrdom has strong attestation from Jewish historian Josephus.

Sources
Problems

James (son of Zebedee)

Died c. 44 CE

Moderate Evidence

James was one of Jesus' inner circle along with Peter and John. His martyrdom is the only apostolic death recorded in the New Testament.

Sources
Problems
  • Later accounts (post-4th century) add legendary details about James preaching in Spain

Thomas

Died c. 72 CE

Moderate Evidence

Thomas is known for his doubts about Jesus' resurrection in John's Gospel. Strong traditions associate him with missionary work in India, though evidence for his martyrdom is not contemporary.

Sources
Problems
  • No 1st-century sources mention Thomas' fate
  • Acts of Thomas contains many legendary elements (like talking animals)
  • Alternative traditions place his death in Syria or Parthia
  • No contemporary Indian sources mention Thomas' arrival or martyrdom

Andrew

Died c. 60-70 CE

Moderate Evidence

Andrew was Peter's brother and one of the first disciples called by Jesus. Traditions about his missionary work in Greece and his crucifixion emerge in the 2nd-4th centuries.

Sources
Problems
  • No 1st-century sources mention Andrew's fate
  • Acts of Andrew is considered largely legendary, and multiple conflicting traditions exist about Andrew's missionary territories
  • The tradition that Andrew was crucified on an X-shaped (saltire) cross is not found in early hagiography; depictions of Andrew being crucified in this manner first appear in the 10th century and do not become standard before the 17th century.

John

Died c. 98-100 CE

Moderate Evidence

John was part of Jesus' inner circle and traditionally associated with the Fourth Gospel and Revelation. Unlike most apostles, early traditions consistently state he died naturally.

Sources
  • Irenaeus (c. 180 CE): States that "John, the disciple of the Lord, who also had leaned upon His breast, did himself publish a Gospel during his residence at Ephesus in Asia" and that John remained alive "until the times of Trajan" (98–117 CE)
  • Polycrates of Ephesus (c. 190 CE): Describes John as "he who reclined on the Lord's bosom... a priest... and a witness and a teacher—he rests at Ephesus"
  • Eusebius (c. 325 CE): Cites tradition that John lived to old age and died at Ephesus
  • John 21:20-23 (c. 90-100 CE): Suggests a tradition that John would not die violently
Problems
  • Alternative traditions suggest John was martyred
  • Mark 10:39: Jesus tells James and John they will "drink the cup" he drinks (interpreted as martyrdom)
  • Debate about whether the Beloved Disciple and John son of Zebedee are the same person

Philip

Died c. 80 CE

Moderate Evidence

Philip appears several times in John's Gospel. Archaeological evidence suggests an early veneration of Philip in Hierapolis, though accounts of his death vary between martyrdom and peaceful death.

Sources
Problems
  • No 1st-century sources mention Philip's fate
  • Acts of Philip contains many legendary elements
  • Confusion between Philip the Apostle and Philip the Evangelist (Acts 6:5, 8:5-40) in some sources
  • The Martyrium of Philip was constructed in the 5th century, over 300 years after Philip's death (c. 80 CE)

James (son of Alphaeus)

Died c. 60-80 CE

Weak Evidence

James son of Alphaeus (often called James the Less) appears in the apostolic lists, but early sources provide almost no information about his later life or death. Later traditions vary widely and often conflate him with James the brother of Jesus.

Sources
Problems
  • No 1st or 2nd-century sources report his fate.
  • Frequent conflation with James the Just (brother of Jesus) in later hagiography.
  • Conflicting later traditions (stoned, crucified, or died peacefully) with no early corroboration.

Bartholomew

Died c. 70-80 CE

Weak Evidence

Bartholomew is barely mentioned in the New Testament. Various traditions associate him with missionary work in Armenia, India, and Mesopotamia, with conflicting accounts of his martyrdom.

Sources
  • Martyrdom of Bartholomew (c. 300-400 CE): Martyred in Armenia, "Then the king rent the purple in which he was clothed, and ordered the holy apostle Bartholomew to be beaten with rods; and after having been thus scourged, to be beheaded."
Problems
  • No sources mention Bartholomew's fate until 4th century
  • Confusion between India proper and "India" as a term sometimes used for regions including Ethiopia, Arabia, or Parthia
  • Martyrdom accounts contain legendary elements typical of hagiography (casting out demons, conversion of King Polymius, immense suffering)

Matthew

Died c. 60-70 CE

Weak Evidence

Matthew, the former tax collector, is traditionally associated with writing the first Gospel. Various conflicting traditions exist about his later missionary work and death.

Sources
Problems
  • No sources mention Matthew's fate until 4th century
  • Alternative traditions suggest he died peacefully in Parthia or Ethiopia
  • Hippolytus (c. 235 CE) states Matthew died naturally

Simon the Zealot

Died c. 65-107 CE

Weak Evidence

Simon the Zealot is only mentioned in the apostle lists in the New Testament. Multiple contradictory traditions exist about his missionary activities and death.

Sources
Problems
  • No 1st or 2nd-century sources mention Simon's fate
  • Major contradictions between traditions (Britain vs. Persia vs. Egypt)
  • The claim he was sawn in half appears in 1275.

Thaddeus (Jude)

Died c. 65-80 CE

Weak Evidence

Thaddeus/Jude is barely mentioned in the gospels. Various traditions link him with missionary work alongside Simon the Zealot in Persia and Armenia.

Sources
Problems
  • No 1st or 2nd-century sources mention Thaddeus/Jude's fate
  • Confusion between Thaddeus of the Twelve and Thaddeus of the Seventy
  • Different traditions describe different methods of execution

Matthias

Died c. 70-80 CE

Weak Evidence

Matthias was chosen to replace Judas Iscariot in Acts 1. Beyond this, almost nothing is known about him from early sources, with contradictory later traditions about his fate.

Problems
  • No sources describe the martyrdom of Matthias. The Synopsis of Dorotheus (6th-7th century pseudepigrapha) only mentions his death.

Judas Iscariot

Died c. 30-33 CE

Strong Evidence

Judas Iscariot betrayed Jesus and died shortly after. His death is one of the few apostolic deaths mentioned in the New Testament, though with contradictory accounts.

Sources
Problems
  • Matthew and Acts provide contradictory accounts of his death
  • No contemporary Roman or Jewish sources mention Judas' fate
  • Varying accounts about what happened to the betrayal money
  • Debate about the historical meaning of "field of blood"

Bonus: Hippolytus, On the Twelve Apostles

Context

This text, attributed to Hippolytus of Rome, is often cited in discussions of apostolic martyrdoms. However, scholars consider it problematic for several reasons:

  • Timing: Written 100–150 years after the apostles' deaths (or 200+ if later attributed), this text relies on traditions far removed from the events, making distortions likely compared to earlier 1st–2nd century sources like Acts or Clement of Rome.
  • Contradictions: It contains historical and geographical mistakes—like questionable locations or details of martyrdoms—clashing with more reliable early records from writers like Irenaeus, suggesting embellishment over accuracy.
  • Authorship: Possibly pseudepigraphical (not by Hippolytus) and filled with hagiographic flourishes—miracles or dramatic tales typical of later saint stories—it lacks the credibility of a firsthand account.
  • Manuscripts: No manuscripts from Hippolytus' time (c. 170–235 CE) survive for this text; existing copies, often medieval, raise doubts about authenticity and suggest later alterations or attributions.