Introduction
This page compiles historical data about each apostle, evaluating the evidence for their life, ministry, and death. Sources are categorized by their historical reliability:
"Despite the popularity of this claim, there are no early, reliable accounts that the apostles were given the opportunity to recant their beliefs before being killed."
Peter (Simon)
Died c. 64-68 CE
Strong EvidencePeter was one of Jesus' closest disciples and traditionally considered the leader of the apostles. His martyrdom in Rome under Emperor Nero has relatively strong historical attestation.
- 1 Clement (c. 95-96 CE): "Peter, through unjust envy, endured not one or two but many labours, and at last, having delivered his testimony, departed unto the place of glory due to him" (1 Clement 5:4)
- Ignatius to the Romans (c. 110 CE): "I do not command you as Peter and Paul did" - suggests both died in Rome
- John 21:18-19 (c. 90-100 CE): Alludes to Peter dying by crucifixion - "stretching out your hands"
- 2 Peter 1:14 (c. 60-130 CE): "I know that the putting off of my body will be soon, as our Lord Jesus Christ showed me" (this was likely written after Peter's death as pseudopigripha)
- Dionysius of Corinth (c. 170 CE): States Peter and Paul both taught in Italy and were martyred around the same time
- Upside-down crucifixion detail first appears in Acts of Peter (c. 180-200 CE):
Paul of Tarsus
Died c. 64-68 CE
Strong EvidenceThough not one of the original Twelve, Paul was an influential apostle who wrote many New Testament epistles. His execution in Rome under Nero has strong historical attestation.
- 1 Clement (c. 95-96 CE): "Paul... having taught righteousness to the whole world and having reached the boundary of the West, and having given testimony before the rulers, so was released from the world..." (1 Clement 5:5-7)
- The Muratorian Fragment (c. 170-200 CE): Refers to "the departure of Paul from the city [of Rome] when he journeyed to Spain"
- Dionysius of Corinth (c. 170 CE): States Peter and Paul were martyred in Italy around the same time
- Tertullian (c. 200 CE): "Paul is beheaded... at Rome" (De Praescriptione Haereticorum 36)
- Eusebius (c. 325 CE): Cites tradition that Paul was beheaded under Nero
- Acts of Paul (c. 160-180 CE) contains legendary elements about his martyrdom.
James (brother of Jesus)
Died c. 62 CE
Strong EvidenceThough not one of the Twelve, James became leader of the Jerusalem church and is considered an apostle in early Christian tradition. His martyrdom has strong attestation from Jewish historian Josephus.
- Josephus, Antiquities 20.9.1 (c. 93-94 CE): "Ananus... assembled the Sanhedrin of judges, and brought before them the brother of Jesus, who was called Christ, whose name was James, and some others... and delivered them to be stoned."
- Hegesippus (quoted in Eusebius, c. 325 CE): Provides a detailed account of James being thrown from the temple pinnacle, then stoned and beaten to death
- Clement of Alexandria (quoted in Eusebius): Refers to James as "the Just" and describes his death
- The authenticity of the "who was called Christ" passage in Josephus is heavily disputed.
- Hegesippus' account (c. 325 CE) adds dramatic and exaggerated details (such as being thrown from the temple) not found in Josephus.
James (son of Zebedee)
Died c. 44 CE
Moderate EvidenceJames was one of Jesus' inner circle along with Peter and John. His martyrdom is the only apostolic death recorded in the New Testament.
- Acts 12:1-2 (c. 80-90 CE): "King Herod [Agrippa I] laid violent hands upon some who belonged to the church. He had James, the brother of John, killed with the sword."
- Clement of Alexandria (quoted in Eusebius, c. 325 CE): The executioner was so moved by James' testimony that he converted and was beheaded alongside him
- Later accounts (post-4th century) add legendary details about James preaching in Spain
Thomas
Died c. 72 CE
Moderate EvidenceThomas is known for his doubts about Jesus' resurrection in John's Gospel. Strong traditions associate him with missionary work in India, though evidence for his martyrdom is not contemporary.
- Acts of Thomas (c. 200-225 CE): Details Thomas' mission to India and martyrdom
- No 1st-century sources mention Thomas' fate
- Acts of Thomas contains many legendary elements (like talking animals)
- Alternative traditions place his death in Syria or Parthia
- No contemporary Indian sources mention Thomas' arrival or martyrdom
Andrew
Died c. 60-70 CE
Moderate EvidenceAndrew was Peter's brother and one of the first disciples called by Jesus. Traditions about his missionary work in Greece and his crucifixion emerge in the 2nd-4th centuries.
- Acts of Andrew (c. 150-200 CE): Describes Andrew's ministry and martyrdom in Achaia (Greece)
- Hippolytus of Rome (c. 235 CE): "Andrew preached to the Scythians and Thracians... was crucified, suspended on an olive tree, at Patrae, a town of Achaia"
- Gregory of Tours (c. 590 CE): Provides detailed account of Andrew's crucifixion
- No 1st-century sources mention Andrew's fate
- Acts of Andrew is considered largely legendary, and multiple conflicting traditions exist about Andrew's missionary territories
- The tradition that Andrew was crucified on an X-shaped (saltire) cross is not found in early hagiography; depictions of Andrew being crucified in this manner first appear in the 10th century and do not become standard before the 17th century.
John
Died c. 98-100 CE
Moderate EvidenceJohn was part of Jesus' inner circle and traditionally associated with the Fourth Gospel and Revelation. Unlike most apostles, early traditions consistently state he died naturally.
- Irenaeus (c. 180 CE): States that "John, the disciple of the Lord, who also had leaned upon His breast, did himself publish a Gospel during his residence at Ephesus in Asia" and that John remained alive "until the times of Trajan" (98–117 CE)
- Polycrates of Ephesus (c. 190 CE): Describes John as "he who reclined on the Lord's bosom... a priest... and a witness and a teacher—he rests at Ephesus"
- Eusebius (c. 325 CE): Cites tradition that John lived to old age and died at Ephesus
- John 21:20-23 (c. 90-100 CE): Suggests a tradition that John would not die violently
- Alternative traditions suggest John was martyred
- Mark 10:39: Jesus tells James and John they will "drink the cup" he drinks (interpreted as martyrdom)
- Debate about whether the Beloved Disciple and John son of Zebedee are the same person
Philip
Died c. 80 CE
Moderate EvidencePhilip appears several times in John's Gospel. Archaeological evidence suggests an early veneration of Philip in Hierapolis, though accounts of his death vary between martyrdom and peaceful death.
- Acts of Philip (c. 350-400 CE): Details Philip's ministry and martyrdom by crucifixion
- The Martyrium of Philip site discovered in Hierapolis, dating to the 5th century
- No 1st-century sources mention Philip's fate
- Acts of Philip contains many legendary elements
- Confusion between Philip the Apostle and Philip the Evangelist (Acts 6:5, 8:5-40) in some sources
- The Martyrium of Philip was constructed in the 5th century, over 300 years after Philip's death (c. 80 CE)
Bartholomew
Died c. 70-80 CE
Weak EvidenceBartholomew is barely mentioned in the New Testament. Various traditions associate him with missionary work in Armenia, India, and Mesopotamia, with conflicting accounts of his martyrdom.
- Martyrdom of Bartholomew (c. 300-400 CE): Martyred in Armenia, "Then the king rent the purple in which he was clothed, and ordered the holy apostle Bartholomew to be beaten with rods; and after having been thus scourged, to be beheaded."
- No sources mention Bartholomew's fate until 4th century
- Confusion between India proper and "India" as a term sometimes used for regions including Ethiopia, Arabia, or Parthia
- Martyrdom accounts contain legendary elements typical of hagiography (casting out demons, conversion of King Polymius, immense suffering)
Matthew
Died c. 60-70 CE
Weak EvidenceMatthew, the former tax collector, is traditionally associated with writing the first Gospel. Various conflicting traditions exist about his later missionary work and death.
- Acts of Matthew (4th-5th century): Describes martyrdom in legendary fashion
- No sources mention Matthew's fate until 4th century
- Alternative traditions suggest he died peacefully in Parthia or Ethiopia
- Hippolytus (c. 235 CE) states Matthew died naturally
Simon the Zealot
Died c. 65-107 CE
Weak EvidenceSimon the Zealot is only mentioned in the apostle lists in the New Testament. Multiple contradictory traditions exist about his missionary activities and death.
- Passion of Simon and Jude (6th-7th century): Describes Simon and Jude being killed in Persia
- Moses of Chorene (5th century): Refers to Simon's martyrdom in the kingdom of Iberia
- No 1st or 2nd-century sources mention Simon's fate
- Major contradictions between traditions (Britain vs. Persia vs. Egypt)
- The claim he was sawn in half appears in 1275.
Thaddeus (Jude)
Died c. 65-80 CE
Weak EvidenceThaddeus/Jude is barely mentioned in the gospels. Various traditions link him with missionary work alongside Simon the Zealot in Persia and Armenia.
- Passion of Simon and Jude (6th-7th century): Describes Simon and Jude being killed in Persia
- Eusebius (c. 325 CE): Records a tradition of "Thaddeus" (possibly a different disciple) evangelizing King Abgar of Edessa
- No 1st or 2nd-century sources mention Thaddeus/Jude's fate
- Confusion between Thaddeus of the Twelve and Thaddeus of the Seventy
- Different traditions describe different methods of execution
Matthias
Died c. 70-80 CE
Weak EvidenceMatthias was chosen to replace Judas Iscariot in Acts 1. Beyond this, almost nothing is known about him from early sources, with contradictory later traditions about his fate.
- No sources describe the martyrdom of Matthias. The Synopsis of Dorotheus (6th-7th century pseudepigrapha) only mentions his death.
Judas Iscariot
Died c. 30-33 CE
Strong EvidenceJudas Iscariot betrayed Jesus and died shortly after. His death is one of the few apostolic deaths mentioned in the New Testament, though with contradictory accounts.
- Matthew 27:3-5 (c. 80-90 CE): "Judas... brought back the thirty pieces of silver to the chief priests... Then he went and hanged himself"
- Acts 1:18-19 (c. 80-90 CE): "Falling headlong, he burst open in the middle and all his bowels gushed out"
- Papias (c. 110-120 CE, quoted in later sources): Describes Judas swelling up and dying in a gruesome accident
- Matthew and Acts provide contradictory accounts of his death
- No contemporary Roman or Jewish sources mention Judas' fate
- Varying accounts about what happened to the betrayal money
- Debate about the historical meaning of "field of blood"
Bonus: Hippolytus, On the Twelve Apostles
This text, attributed to Hippolytus of Rome, is often cited in discussions of apostolic martyrdoms. However, scholars consider it problematic for several reasons:
- Timing: Written 100–150 years after the apostles' deaths (or 200+ if later attributed), this text relies on traditions far removed from the events, making distortions likely compared to earlier 1st–2nd century sources like Acts or Clement of Rome.
- Contradictions: It contains historical and geographical mistakes—like questionable locations or details of martyrdoms—clashing with more reliable early records from writers like Irenaeus, suggesting embellishment over accuracy.
- Authorship: Possibly pseudepigraphical (not by Hippolytus) and filled with hagiographic flourishes—miracles or dramatic tales typical of later saint stories—it lacks the credibility of a firsthand account.
- Manuscripts: No manuscripts from Hippolytus' time (c. 170–235 CE) survive for this text; existing copies, often medieval, raise doubts about authenticity and suggest later alterations or attributions.