Reliable historical evidence for the apostles' deaths is limited.
"Despite the popularity of this claim, there are no early, reliable accounts that the apostles were given the opportunity to recant their beliefs before being killed."
This page compiles historical data about each apostle, evaluating the evidence for their life, ministry, and death. Sources are categorized by their historical reliability: Strong Evidence, Moderate Evidence, and Weak Evidence.
Strong Evidence
Peter (Simon) - Died c. 64-68 CE
Peter was one of Jesus' closest disciples and traditionally considered the leader of the apostles. His martyrdom in Rome under Emperor Nero has relatively strong historical attestation.
Sources
1 Clement (c. 95-96 CE)1: "Peter, through unjust envy, endured not one or two but many labours, and at last, having delivered his testimony, departed unto the place of glory due to him" (1 Clement 5:4)
Ignatius to the Romans (c. 110 CE)2: "I do not command you as Peter and Paul did" - suggests both died in Rome
John 21:18-19 (c. 90-100 CE): Alludes to Peter dying by crucifixion - "stretching out your hands"
2 Peter 1:14 (c. 60-130 CE): "I know that the putting off of my body will be soon, as our Lord Jesus Christ showed me" (this was likely written after Peter's death as pseudepigrapha)
Dionysius of Corinth (c. 170 CE)3: States Peter and Paul both taught in Italy and were martyred around the same time
Historical Questions
Upside-down crucifixion detail first appears in Acts of Peter (c. 180-200 CE)
Paul of Tarsus - Died c. 64-68 CE
Though not one of the original Twelve, Paul was an influential apostle who wrote many New Testament epistles. His execution in Rome under Nero has strong historical attestation.
Sources
1 Clement (c. 95-96 CE)4: "Paul... having taught righteousness to the whole world and having reached the boundary of the West, and having given testimony before the rulers, so was released from the world..." (1 Clement 5:5-7)
The Muratorian Fragment (c. 170-200 CE)5: Refers to "the departure of Paul from the city [of Rome] when he journeyed to Spain"
Dionysius of Corinth (c. 170 CE)6: States Peter and Paul were martyred in Italy around the same time
Tertullian (c. 200 CE)7: "Paul is beheaded... at Rome" (De Praescriptione Haereticorum 36)
Eusebius (c. 325 CE)8: Cites tradition that Paul was beheaded under Nero
Historical Questions
Acts of Paul (c. 160-180 CE) contains legendary elements about his martyrdom.
James (brother of Jesus) - Died c. 62 CE
Though not one of the Twelve, James became leader of the Jerusalem church and is considered an apostle in early Christian tradition. His martyrdom has strong attestation from Jewish historian Josephus.
Sources
Josephus, Antiquities 20.9.1 (c. 93-94 CE)9: "Ananus... assembled the Sanhedrin of judges, and brought before them the brother of Jesus, who was called Christ, whose name was James, and some others... and delivered them to be stoned."
Hegesippus (quoted in Eusebius, c. 325 CE)10: Provides a detailed account of James being thrown from the temple pinnacle, then stoned and beaten to death
Clement of Alexandria (quoted in Eusebius)11: Refers to James as "the Just" and describes his death
Hegesippus' account (c. 325 CE) adds dramatic and exaggerated details (such as being thrown from the temple) not found in Josephus.
Judas Iscariot - Died c. 30-33 CE
Judas Iscariot betrayed Jesus and died shortly after. His death is one of the few apostolic deaths mentioned in the New Testament, though with contradictory accounts.
Sources
Matthew 27:3-5 (c. 80-90 CE): "Judas... brought back the thirty pieces of silver to the chief priests... Then he went and hanged himself"
Acts 1:18-19 (c. 80-90 CE): "Falling headlong, he burst open in the middle and all his bowels gushed out"
Papias (c. 110-120 CE, quoted in later sources)12: Describes Judas swelling up and dying in a gruesome accident
Historical Questions
Matthew and Acts provide contradictory accounts of his death
No contemporary Roman or Jewish sources mention Judas' fate
Varying accounts about what happened to the betrayal money
Debate about the historical meaning of "field of blood"
Moderate Evidence
James (son of Zebedee) - Died c. 44 CE
James was one of Jesus' inner circle along with Peter and John. His martyrdom is the only apostolic death recorded in the New Testament.
Sources
Acts 12:1-2 (c. 80-90 CE): "King Herod [Agrippa I] laid violent hands upon some who belonged to the church. He had James, the brother of John, killed with the sword."
Clement of Alexandria (quoted in Eusebius, c. 325 CE)13: The executioner was so moved by James' testimony that he converted and was beheaded alongside him
Historical Questions
Later accounts (post-4th century) add legendary details about James preaching in Spain
Thomas - Died c. 72 CE
Thomas is known for his doubts about Jesus' resurrection in John's Gospel. Strong traditions associate him with missionary work in India, though evidence for his martyrdom is not contemporary.
Sources
Acts of Thomas (c. 200-225 CE): Details Thomas' mission to India and martyrdom
Historical Questions
No 1st-century sources mention Thomas' fate
Acts of Thomas contains many legendary elements (like talking animals)
Alternative traditions place his death in Syria or Parthia
No contemporary Indian sources mention Thomas' arrival or martyrdom
Andrew - Died c. 60-70 CE
Andrew was Peter's brother and one of the first disciples called by Jesus. Traditions about his missionary work in Greece and his crucifixion emerge in the 2nd-4th centuries.
Sources
Acts of Andrew (c. 150-200 CE): Describes Andrew's ministry and martyrdom in Achaia (Greece)
Hippolytus of Rome (c. 235 CE)14: "Andrew preached to the Scythians and Thracians... was crucified, suspended on an olive tree, at Patrae, a town of Achaia"
Gregory of Tours (c. 590 CE)15: Provides detailed account of Andrew's crucifixion
Historical Questions
No 1st-century sources mention Andrew's fate
Acts of Andrew is considered largely legendary, and multiple conflicting traditions exist about Andrew's missionary territories
The tradition that Andrew was crucified on an X-shaped (saltire) cross is not found in early hagiography; depictions of Andrew being crucified in this manner first appear in the 10th century and do not become standard before the 17th century.
John - Died c. 98-100 CE
John was part of Jesus' inner circle and traditionally associated with the Fourth Gospel and Revelation. Unlike most apostles, early traditions consistently state he died naturally.
Sources
Irenaeus (c. 180 CE)16: States that "John, the disciple of the Lord, who also had leaned upon His breast, did himself publish a Gospel during his residence at Ephesus in Asia" and that John remained alive "until the times of Trajan" (98-117 CE)
Polycrates of Ephesus (c. 190 CE)17: Describes John as "he who reclined on the Lord's bosom... a priest... and a witness and a teacher-he rests at Ephesus"
Eusebius (c. 325 CE)18: Cites tradition that John lived to old age and died at Ephesus
John 21:20-23 (c. 90-100 CE): Suggests a tradition that John would not die violently
Historical Questions
Alternative traditions suggest John was martyred
Mark 10:39: Jesus tells James and John they will "drink the cup" he drinks (interpreted as martyrdom)
Debate about whether the Beloved Disciple and John son of Zebedee are the same person
Philip - Died c. 80 CE
Philip appears several times in John's Gospel. Archaeological evidence suggests an early veneration of Philip in Hierapolis, though accounts of his death vary between martyrdom and peaceful death.
Sources
Acts of Philip (c. 350-400 CE): Details Philip's ministry and martyrdom by crucifixion
The Martyrium of Philip site19 discovered in Hierapolis, dating to the 5th century
Historical Questions
No 1st-century sources mention Philip's fate
Acts of Philip contains many legendary elements
Confusion between Philip the Apostle and Philip the Evangelist (Acts 6:5, 8:5-40) in some sources
The Martyrium of Philip was constructed in the 5th century, over 300 years after Philip's death (c. 80 CE)
Weak Evidence
James (son of Alphaeus) - Died c. 60-80 CE
James son of Alphaeus (often called James the Less) appears in the apostolic lists, but early sources provide almost no information about his later life or death. Later traditions vary widely and often conflate him with James the brother of Jesus.
Sources
Hippolytus (trad. c. 3rd century; uncertain authorship)20: Lists James son of Alphaeus among the Twelve and gives a brief notice of his field of work and death (late tradition).
Historical Questions
No 1st or 2nd-century sources report his fate.
Frequent conflation with James the Just (brother of Jesus) in later hagiography.
Conflicting later traditions (stoned, crucified, or died peacefully) with no early corroboration.
Bartholomew - Died c. 70-80 CE
Bartholomew is barely mentioned in the New Testament. Various traditions associate him with missionary work in Armenia, India, and Mesopotamia, with conflicting accounts of his martyrdom.
Sources
Martyrdom of Bartholomew (c. 300-400 CE)21: Martyred in Armenia, "Then the king rent the purple in which he was clothed, and ordered the holy apostle Bartholomew to be beaten with rods; and after having been thus scourged, to be beheaded."
Historical Questions
No sources mention Bartholomew's fate until 4th century
Confusion between India proper and "India" as a term sometimes used for regions including Ethiopia, Arabia, or Parthia
Martyrdom accounts contain legendary elements typical of hagiography (casting out demons, conversion of King Polymius, immense suffering)
Matthew - Died c. 60-70 CE
Matthew, the former tax collector, is traditionally associated with writing the first Gospel. Various conflicting traditions exist about his later missionary work and death.
Sources
Acts of Matthew (4th-5th century)22: Describes martyrdom in legendary fashion
Historical Questions
No sources mention Matthew's fate until 4th century
Alternative traditions suggest he died peacefully in Parthia or Ethiopia
Hippolytus (c. 235 CE) states Matthew died naturally
Simon the Zealot - Died c. 65-107 CE
Simon the Zealot is only mentioned in the apostle lists in the New Testament. Multiple contradictory traditions exist about his missionary activities and death.
Sources
Passion of Simon and Jude (6th-7th century)23: Describes Simon and Jude being killed in Persia
Moses of Chorene (5th century)24: Refers to Simon's martyrdom in the kingdom of Iberia
Historical Questions
No 1st or 2nd-century sources mention Simon's fate
Major contradictions between traditions (Britain vs. Persia vs. Egypt)
Different traditions describe different methods of execution
Matthias - Died c. 70-80 CE
Matthias was chosen to replace Judas Iscariot in Acts 1. Beyond this, almost nothing is known about him from early sources, with contradictory later traditions about his fate.
Historical Questions
No sources describe the martyrdom of Matthias. The Synopsis of Dorotheus (6th-7th century pseudepigrapha) only mentions his death.
Bonus: Hippolytus, On the Twelve Apostles
This text, attributed to Hippolytus of Rome, is often cited in discussions of apostolic martyrdoms. However, scholars consider it problematic for several reasons:
Timing: Written 100-150 years after the apostles' deaths (or 200+ if later attributed), this text relies on traditions far removed from the events, making distortions likely compared to earlier 1st-2nd century sources like Acts or Clement of Rome.
Contradictions: It contains historical and geographical mistakes-like questionable locations or details of martyrdoms-clashing with more reliable early records from writers like Irenaeus, suggesting embellishment over accuracy.
Authorship: Possibly pseudepigraphical (not by Hippolytus) and filled with hagiographic flourishes-miracles or dramatic tales typical of later saint stories-it lacks the credibility of a firsthand account.
Manuscripts: No manuscripts from Hippolytus' time (c. 170-235 CE) survive for this text; existing copies, often medieval, raise doubts about authenticity and suggest later alterations or attributions.