Last updated: February 2, 2026
This page examines the composition, dating, manuscript evidence, and scholarly debates surrounding the four canonical Gospels. The Gospels are the primary sources for the life and teachings of Jesus.
Matthew, Mark, and Luke contain extensive passages with identical wording. Scholars have proposed that one or more copied from another. This literary relationship is called the Synoptic Problem.
Most scholars since the late 19th century accept Markan priority1: Mark was written first, and Matthew and Luke both used Mark as a source.
| Gospel | Overlap with Mark |
|---|---|
| Matthew | 97% of Mark's 661 verses appear in Matthew2 |
| Luke | 88% of Mark's verses appear in Luke2 |
Of Mark's 11,025 words, only 132 have no parallel in either Matthew or Luke1.
Mark contains passages that describe Jesus in particular ways. Matthew and Luke often present different wording in parallel passages1.
| Mark 6:5 | Matthew 13:58 |
|---|---|
| "And he could not do any mighty work there" | "And he did not do many mighty works there" |
Matthew's wording differs from Mark's in describing Jesus's actions in his hometown.
| Mark 10:18 | Matthew 19:17 |
|---|---|
| "Why do you call me good? No one is good except God alone." | "Why do you ask me about what is good? There is only one who is good." |
Matthew's version of this exchange differs in wording from Mark's.
Editorial fatigue occurs when a writer copying a source begins to alter it but then slips back into the original wording, creating inconsistencies. Scholar Mark Goodacre cites this as evidence for Markan priority3.
Matthew and Luke share about 235 verses not found in Mark. The Two-Source Hypothesis, formulated by H.J. Holtzmann in 1863, proposes they used a second source called Q (from German Quelle, "source").
No manuscript evidence for Q has ever been found4. Some scholars have proposed alternative explanations, such as the "Case Against Q" or the Farrer Hypothesis, which proposes Luke used both Mark and Matthew.
Multiple passages share extensive verbatim wording between the gospels. Scholars interpret these parallels as evidence of literary dependence rather than independent accounts.
| Matthew 3:7b-10 | Luke 3:7b-9 |
|---|---|
| "You brood of vipers! Who warned you to flee from the wrath to come? Bear fruits in keeping with repentance. And do not presume to say to yourselves, 'We have Abraham as our father,' for I tell you, God is able from these stones to raise up children for Abraham. Even now the axe is laid to the root of the trees. Every tree therefore that does not bear good fruit is cut down and thrown into the fire." | "You brood of vipers! Who warned you to flee from the wrath to come? Bear fruits in keeping with repentance. And do not begin to say to yourselves, 'We have Abraham as our father.' For I tell you, God is able from these stones to raise up children for Abraham. Even now the axe is laid to the root of the trees. Every tree therefore that does not bear good fruit is cut down and thrown into the fire." |
| Matthew 10:21-22 | Mark 13:12-13 |
|---|---|
| "Brother will deliver brother over to death, and the father his child, and children will rise against parents and have them put to death, and you will be hated by all for my name's sake. But the one who endures to the end will be saved." | "Brother will deliver brother over to death, and the father his child, and children will rise against parents and have them put to death, and you will be hated by all for my name's sake. But the one who endures to the end will be saved." |
| Mark 13:14 | Matthew 24:15 |
|---|---|
| "But when you see the abomination of desolation standing where he ought not to be (let the reader understand), then let those who are in Judea flee to the mountains." | "So when you see the abomination of desolation spoken of by the prophet Daniel, standing in the holy place (let the reader understand), then let those who are in Judea flee to the mountains." |
| Mark 2:10 | Matthew 9:6 |
|---|---|
| "But that you may know that the Son of Man has authority on earth to forgive sins" (he said to the paralytic) | "But that you may know that the Son of Man has authority on earth to forgive sins" (he then said to the paralytic) |
The Gospels were written anonymously and without explicit historical markers5. The majority of modern New Testament scholarship believes the canonical Gospels were originally penned and circulated anonymously6. The attributions to Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John emerged around 185 CE through Irenaeus, bishop of Lyon7.
"Matthew also issued a written Gospel among the Hebrews in their own dialect, while Peter and Paul were preaching at Rome, and laying the foundations of the Church."
"Matthew put together the oracles [logia] in the Hebrew language, and each one interpreted them as best he could."
Papias of Hierapolis, quoted in Eusebius (c. 312 CE), Ecclesiastical History, 3.39.16
Key questions regarding authorship: Irenaeus and other early sources say Matthew wrote a "logia (sayings)" in the Hebrew language. Scholars note that the canonical Gospel of Matthew is a narrative gospel in Greek, not a sayings collection in Hebrew. Some scholars distinguish between the "logia" mentioned by Papias and the canonical Gospel, while others propose various solutions to reconcile these traditions.
"Mark, having become the interpreter of Peter, wrote down accurately, though not in order, whatsoever he remembered of the things said or done by Christ. For he neither heard the Lord nor followed him, but afterward, as I said, he followed Peter, who adapted his teaching to the needs of his hearers, but with no intention of giving a connected account of the Lord's discourses, so that Mark committed no error while he thus wrote some things as he remembered them. For he was careful of one thing, not to omit any of the things which he had heard, and not to state any of them falsely."
Papias of Hierapolis, quoted in Eusebius (c. 312 CE), Ecclesiastical History, 3.39.15
"Mark, the disciple and interpreter of Peter, did also hand down to us in writing what had been preached by Peter."
Scholars debate the reliability of Papias's testimony. Bart Ehrman expresses skepticism about Papias's accuracy8, while other scholars view Papias as preserving valuable early traditions.
"Luke also, the companion of Paul, recorded in a book the Gospel preached by him."
"The third book of the Gospels is that according to Luke. Luke, the well-known physician, after the ascension of Christ, when Paul had taken with him as one zealous for the law, composed it in his own name, according to the general belief. Yet he himself had not seen the Lord in the flesh; and therefore, as he was able to ascertain events, so indeed he begins to tell the story from the birth of John."
"Afterwards, John, the disciple of the Lord, who also had leaned upon His breast, did himself publish a Gospel during his residence at Ephesus in Asia."
"The fourth of the Gospels is that of John, one of the disciples. ... At which nevertheless he was present, and so he set them down."
Scholars examine internal evidence regarding the authorship and sources of the Gospels.
| Gospel | Evidence | Reference |
|---|---|---|
| Matthew | Refers to "Matthew" in the third person: "he saw a man called Matthew sitting at the tax booth" | Matthew 9:9 |
| Mark | Uses third-person narration. Never claims to be an eyewitness. | N/A |
| Luke | "...just as those who from the beginning were eyewitnesses and ministers of the word have delivered them to us..." | Luke 1:1-3 |
| John | "This is the disciple who is bearing witness about these things, and who has written these things, and we know that his testimony is true." (third-person reference) | John 21:24 |
Scholars examine questions about the education level and linguistic capabilities of the traditional authors.
"Now when they saw the boldness of Peter and John, and perceived that they were uneducated (lit., 'illiterate'), common men, they were astonished."
| Criteria | Historical Reality | In the Gospels |
|---|---|---|
| Literacy Rate | About 3% or less overall, especially low in rural villages9 | Composed in advanced literary Greek |
| Language | Aramaic was the dominant spoken language; Greek was limited to urban elites | Written in sophisticated Greek prose |
| Education | Fishermen and most villagers likely lacked formal Greek education | Authors show knowledge of Greek literary forms |
| Scripture Access | Scripture was read publicly; private scrolls, especially in Greek, were rare | Frequent quotations from the Greek Old Testament (Septuagint) |
The earliest surviving manuscripts of the Gospels date 100-300 years after the events they describe.
| Event/Manuscript | Date | Gap from Crucifixion |
|---|---|---|
| Crucifixion of Jesus | 30-33 CE (scholarly consensus) | — |
| Gospel composition (Mark → John) | 70-100 CE | 40-70 years |
| P52 (Rylands Papyrus) — earliest fragment | 125-200+ CE (contested) | 95-170+ years |
| P66, P75 — earliest extensive manuscripts | 175-225 CE | 145-195 years |
| Codex Sinaiticus, Vaticanus — complete Bibles | 330-360 CE | ~300-330 years |
P52, a credit-card-sized fragment containing seven partial lines from John 18, is often cited as evidence for early Gospel circulation. However, paleographic dating methods allow for dates as late as the early 3rd century10. Nongbri found dated manuscripts from 152 CE and 184 CE with similar handwriting styles.
Scholarly estimates place the number of textual variants in the New Testament manuscripts at 400,000-500,00011. For context, the Greek New Testament contains approximately 138,000 words. Scholar Daniel Wallace notes that over 99% make no difference to the meaning12.
"Truly I tell you, this generation will not pass away until all these things have happened."
Scholars interpret this passage in various ways. Some, like Bart Ehrman, argue that Jesus anticipated an imminent coming judgment within his generation16. Other scholars interpret "this generation" differently, or understand the prophecy as partially fulfilled in 70 CE. Scholars continue to debate this passage.
The four Gospels contain varying details in their accounts. Scholars interpret these differences in various ways.
| Matthew 2:1 | Luke 2:1-2 |
|---|---|
| Jesus born "in the days of Herod the king" (died 4 BCE) | Jesus born during "the census of Quirinius" as governor of Syria (6 CE) |
This represents a difference of approximately 10 years17. Quirinius's documented career places his governorship around 6 CE18. Scholars have proposed various solutions, including earlier administrative roles for Quirinius or different census events.
| Matthew | Luke |
|---|---|
| Mary and Joseph appear to live in Bethlehem (Matt 2:1-11, magi visit a "house") | Mary lives in Nazareth before the birth (Luke 1:26-27) |
| They move to Nazareth only after returning from Egypt (Matt 2:22-23) | Joseph travels "from Galilee, from the city of Nazareth" to Bethlehem (Luke 2:4) |
| Matthew | Luke |
|---|---|
| Family flees to Egypt (Matt 2:13-15) | Family goes to Jerusalem for purification, then directly back to Nazareth (Luke 2:22-39) |
| Herod massacres infants (Matt 2:16-18) | No mention of Egypt or massacre |
| Gospel | Women at the Tomb |
|---|---|
| Matthew 28:1 | "Mary Magdalene and the other Mary" |
| Mark 16:1 | "Mary Magdalene, and Mary the mother of James, and Salome" |
| Luke 24:10 | "Mary Magdalene, Joanna, Mary the mother of James, and the other women" |
| John 20:1 | "Mary Magdalene" alone |
| Mark 16:8 | Matthew 28:8 | Luke 24:9 |
|---|---|---|
| "They said nothing to anyone, because they were afraid" | "They... ran to tell his disciples" | "They told all these things to the Eleven" |
| Mark 15:25 | John 19:14 |
|---|---|
| "It was the third hour when they crucified him" (9 AM) | At "about the sixth hour" (noon), Jesus was still before Pilate |
| Gospel | Last Words |
|---|---|
| Matthew 27:46 | "My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?" |
| Mark 15:34 | "My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?" |
| Luke 23:46 | "Father, into your hands I commit my spirit" |
| John 19:30 | "It is finished" |
| Issue | Matthew 1:1-16 | Luke 3:23-38 |
|---|---|---|
| Joseph's father | "Jacob [was] the father of Joseph" | Joseph was "the son of Heli" |
| Line from David | Traces through David's son Solomon | Traces through David's son Nathan |
| Generations | Three sets of 14 generations | Approximately 77 generations to Adam |
The two genealogies share approximately 17 out of roughly 100 names between David and Jesus19. Scholars have proposed various explanations, including different genealogical lines (legal vs. biological) or different family traditions.
| John 2:13-16 | Matt 21:12-13, Mark 11:15-17, Luke 19:45-46 |
|---|---|
| Beginning of Jesus's ministry | During the final week, after the triumphal entry |
| Synoptic Gospels | John |
|---|---|
| Mention only one Passover, suggesting ~1 year | References three Passovers (2:13, 6:4, 12:1), indicating 2-3 years |