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Paul's Letters

Last updated: February 2, 2026

Modern scholarship disputes the authorship of several letters attributed to Paul in the New Testament.

Introduction

Thirteen New Testament letters claim Pauline authorship. Modern scholarship generally divides them into three categories based on linguistic analysis, theological development, and historical evidence, though scholarly opinion continues to evolve:

Authentic Letters

Romans (~57 CE)

Consensus: Universally accepted as authentic. Romans is Paul's longest and most systematic theological work, written to introduce himself to the Roman Christian community. The letter explicitly names Tertius as the scribe (16:22).

Evidence For Authenticity

• Names the scribe: "Tertius, who wrote this letter, greets you" (Rom 16:22).
• Extensive specific greetings indicating real relationships (Rom 16:3-16).
• States concrete travel plans to Spain (Rom 15:24, 28).
• Mentions the Jerusalem collection with details (Rom 15:25-26).
• Names hosts and companions (e.g., Gaius, Erastus) (Rom 16:23).

Evidence Against Authenticity

• Final doxology is a long liturgical-style sentence unlike the body of the letter (Rom 16:25-27).
• Chapter 16 contains numerous greetings to people Paul has not met, raising internal questions about destination/context (Rom 16:3-16).

1 Corinthians (~54 CE)

Consensus: Universally accepted as authentic. Written to address specific problems in the Corinthian church, including divisions, sexual immorality, and questions about spiritual gifts. Co-authored with Sosthenes (1:1).

Evidence For Authenticity

• Identifies co-sender Sosthenes (1 Cor 1:1).
• Reports from "Chloe's people" cited as the occasion (1 Cor 1:11).
• Specific baptismal reminiscences (Crispus, Gaius) (1 Cor 1:14).
• Refers to a previous letter he wrote to them (1 Cor 5:9).
• Discusses coordination with Apollos in concrete terms (1 Cor 16:12).

Evidence Against Authenticity

• Women-keep-silent lines disrupt the flow of the argument (1 Cor 14:34-35 vs. v.36).
• Head-covering section stands apart rhetorically from adjacent material (1 Cor 11:2-16).
• Multiple "now concerning" transitions may reflect stitched correspondence (1 Cor 7:1; 8:1; 12:1).

2 Corinthians (~55-56 CE)

Consensus: Universally accepted as authentic, though many scholars believe it may be a composite of multiple letters¹. The letter reveals Paul's complex relationship with the Corinthian church and contains some of his most personal reflections. Co-authored with Timothy (1:1).

Evidence For Authenticity

• Co-sent with Timothy and addressed personally (2 Cor 1:1).
• References a "painful visit" and a prior tearful letter² (2 Cor 2:1-4).
• Detailed catalog of sufferings³ (2 Cor 11:23-28).
• Specific historical incident: escape from Damascus⁴ (2 Cor 11:32-33).
• Personal "thorn in the flesh" reference⁵ (2 Cor 12:7).

Evidence Against Authenticity

• Marked shift in tone and content beginning at⁶ (2 Cor 10:1).
• Paranesis on unequal yoking⁷ (2 Cor 6:14-7:1) interrupts the flow between 6:13 and 7:2.
• Two discrete sections on the collection may reflect separate notes⁸ (ch. 8; ch. 9).

Galatians (~48-55 CE)

Consensus: Universally accepted as authentic. Written in response to a crisis over circumcision and adherence to Jewish law in Paul's Galatian churches. Paul claims to have written the final portion in his own hand with "large letters" (6:11).

Evidence For Authenticity

• Claims to write the closing in "large letters" (Gal 6:11).
• Provides autobiographical timeline (Arabia, Damascus, Jerusalem) (Gal 1:17-24; 2:1).
• Confronts Cephas/Peter publicly over table-fellowship (Gal 2:11-14).
• Names Barnabas and others involved in the dispute (Gal 2:13).
• Unusually abrupt opening without a thanksgiving, signaling a crisis (Gal 1:6-7).

Evidence Against Authenticity

• Addressed broadly to the "churches of Galatia," leaving geographical ambiguity (Gal 1:2).

Philippians (~61-62 CE)

Consensus: Universally accepted as authentic. Written from prison, likely during Paul's Roman imprisonment. The letter expresses gratitude for financial support and contains the famous Christ hymn (2:6-11). Co-authored with Timothy (1:1).

Evidence For Authenticity

• Co-sent with Timothy (Phil 1:1).
• Imprisonment noted; gospel known in the whole "imperial guard" (Phil 1:13).
• Names Epaphroditus and narrates his illness/recovery⁹ (Phil 2:25-30).
• Names Euodia and Syntyche and urges reconciliation (Phil 4:2-3).
• Acknowledges distinctive financial support from Philippi (Phil 4:15-18).

Evidence Against Authenticity

• Abrupt polemical turn at "Look out for the dogs" (Phil 3:2).
• "Finally" introduces a section mid-letter (Phil 3:1).

1 Thessalonians (~50 CE)

Consensus: Universally accepted as authentic and likely Paul's earliest surviving letter¹⁰. Addresses concerns about the return of Christ and encourages the Thessalonian Christians in the face of persecution. Co-authored with Silvanus and Timothy (1:1).

Evidence For Authenticity

• Co-senders named: Paul, Silvanus, Timothy (1 Thess 1:1).
• Speaks of gentle conduct "like a nursing mother" among them (1 Thess 2:7).
• Explains why he could not return: hindered by Satan (1 Thess 2:18).
• Reports Timothy's return and good news (1 Thess 3:6).
• Gives pastoral instruction about those "asleep" (1 Thess 4:13-18).

Evidence Against Authenticity

• 2:14-16 is a stark aside unlike Paul's usual tone (1 Thess 2:14-16).

Philemon (~61-62 CE)

Consensus: Generally accepted as authentic, though some recent scholarship has raised questions¹¹. This brief personal letter concerns the slave Onesimus and demonstrates Paul's approach to social relationships within the early Christian community. Addressed to Philemon, Apphia, and Archippus.

Evidence For Authenticity

• Personal wordplay on Onesimus ("useful") (Phlm v.11).
• Offers to cover Onesimus's debt, a concrete legal pledge (Phlm vv.18-19).
• Asks for a guest room in expectation of release (Phlm v.22).
• Lists companions by name (Epaphras, Mark, Aristarchus, Demas, Luke) (Phlm vv.23-24).
• Claims personal handwriting in the note (Phlm v.19).

Questions About Authenticity

• Very brief and highly personal scope leaves little external corroboration within the text.

Disputed Letters

2 Thessalonians (~51 CE or 80-90 CE)

Consensus: Disputed authorship with opinion divided¹². Some scholars argue for authenticity while others consider it pseudonymous. The letter addresses concerns about the timing of Christ's return and the need for continued work while waiting.

Evidence For Authenticity

• Same co-senders as the first letter (2 Thess 1:1).
• Notes a distinguishing personal signature (2 Thess 3:17).
• Paranesis on work and idleness grounded in a remembered rule (2 Thess 3:10-12).
• Ends with a Pauline-style benediction (2 Thess 3:16-18).

Evidence Against Authenticity

• Warns against letters "to the effect that the day of the Lord has come"¹³ (2 Thess 2:2).
• Introduces the distinctive "man of lawlessness" scenario¹⁴ (2 Thess 2:3-4).
• Emphasizes adherence to traditions delivered "by letter or by word"¹⁵ (2 Thess 2:15).

Colossians (~62 CE or 70-80 CE)

Consensus: Disputed authorship with many scholars questioning Pauline authorship based on vocabulary, style, and theological development¹⁶. However, some scholars continue to defend its authenticity, particularly noting connections with Philemon.

Evidence For Authenticity

• Self-identifies as from "Paul... and Timothy" (Col 1:1).
• Mentions imprisonment and asks for prayer (Col 4:3; 4:18).
• Names Tychicus and Onesimus as bearers (Col 4:7-9).
• Greets Luke and Demas (Col 4:14).
• Instructs exchange with the Laodicean letter (Col 4:16).

Evidence Against Authenticity

• Elevated Christ hymn stands out stylistically¹⁷ (Col 1:15-20).
• Warnings against "philosophy" and regulations feature vocabulary unusual in other Pauline letters¹⁸ (Col 2:8; 2:20-23).
• Developed household code section differs in tone from earlier correspondence¹⁹ (Col 3:18-4:1).

Ephesians (~62 CE or 80-90 CE)

Consensus: Traditionally considered pseudonymous by many scholars²⁰, though recent surveys suggest more divided opinion than previously thought. The letter's relationship to Colossians and its distinctive vocabulary and style remain points of debate.

Evidence For Authenticity

• Self-identification as Paul with multiple prisoner references (Eph 1:1; 3:1; 4:1).
• Mentions Tychicus as the bearer with report-giving role (Eph 6:21-22).
• Unified cosmic reconciliation theme consistent across the letter (Eph 1:9-10).

Evidence Against Authenticity

• Opening blessing is a single very long sentence in Greek²¹ (Eph 1:3-14).
• Speaks of "having heard of your faith" rather than direct acquaintance (Eph 1:15).
• General, impersonal tone with few local references compared to other letters.

Pseudonymous Letters

1 Timothy (~100-110 CE)

Consensus: Most critical scholars question Pauline authorship of the Pastoral Epistles based on vocabulary, style, church organization, and theological development²². However, some scholars continue to defend authenticity or propose models of Pauline involvement with later editing.

Evidence For Authenticity

• Direct personal charge to Timothy and assignment at Ephesus (1 Tim 1:3; 1:18).
• Pastoral concern for community order and prayer (1 Tim 2:1-2).
• Personal medical advice to Timothy (1 Tim 5:23).
• Travel timing and instructions suggest a situational letter (1 Tim 3:14-15).

Evidence Against Authenticity

• Elaborate qualifications for overseers and deacons reflect structured offices²³ (1 Tim 3:1-13).
• Emphasis on maintaining a fixed "deposit" and avoiding so-called knowledge²⁴ (1 Tim 6:20).
• Detailed widow list/registration appears institutional²⁵ (1 Tim 5:9-16).

2 Timothy (~100-110 CE)

Consensus: Most critical scholars question Pauline authorship, though 2 Timothy contains more personal details than the other Pastoral Epistles²⁶, leading some to propose it contains authentic Pauline fragments or represents a different compositional process.

Evidence For Authenticity

• Personal requests and items (cloak, books, parchments) (2 Tim 4:13).
• Names close associates and opponents (Demas, Luke, Alexander) (2 Tim 4:10-15).
• Farewell tone and self-assessment of ministry (2 Tim 4:6-8).
• Mentions family faith of Lois and Eunice (2 Tim 1:5).

Evidence Against Authenticity

• Urges a fixed "pattern of sound words" and a guarded "good deposit"²⁷ (2 Tim 1:13-14).
• Instruction to entrust teaching to reliable men suggests a second-generation structure²⁸ (2 Tim 2:2).

Titus (~100-110 CE)

Consensus: Most critical scholars question Pauline authorship based on vocabulary, style, and ecclesiastical development²⁹. The letter shares many characteristics with the other Pastoral Epistles that distinguish them from the undisputed Pauline corpus.

Evidence For Authenticity

• Tasked to appoint elders in every town in Crete (Titus 1:5).
• Quotes a Cretan prophet and applies it to the situation (Titus 1:12).
• Specific travel plans and greetings (e.g., winter in Nicopolis) (Titus 3:12-15).
• Names Zenas the lawyer and Apollos with concrete instructions (Titus 3:13).

Evidence Against Authenticity

• Focus on elders/overseers and their qualifications suggests developed church order³⁰ (Titus 1:5-9).
• Strong emphasis on teaching "sound doctrine" across groups³¹ (Titus 2:1-10).
• Salvation framed as past event leading to good works³² (Titus 3:5-8).

Summary

Contemporary scholarship generally recognizes a three-tier classification of the Pauline letters, though scholarly opinion continues to evolve:

• Undisputed (7 letters): Romans, 1-2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians, and Philemon enjoy widespread scholarly acceptance as authentically Pauline based on consistent vocabulary, style, and historical context.
• Disputed (3 letters): 2 Thessalonians, Colossians, and Ephesians present mixed evidence, with ongoing scholarly debate about their authorship. Recent surveys show more nuanced positions than traditional binary accept/reject categories.
• Questioned (3 letters): The Pastoral Epistles (1-2 Timothy, Titus) are debated by scholars based on vocabulary, style, ecclesiastical development, and historical context, with some defending various models of Pauline involvement.

These authorship questions relate to the development of early Christian thought and the transition from the earliest Christian communities to more structured ecclesiastical organizations. Examining the compositional context of these letters allows scholars to trace theological patterns across the first and second centuries CE.

References

1. Brown, Raymond E. An Introduction to the New Testament. New York: Doubleday, 1997, pp. 541-546. Brown argues 2 Corinthians may be a composite of up to five letters.
2. 2 Corinthians 2:1-4. Paul references a "painful visit" and a letter written "with many tears."
3. 2 Corinthians 11:23-28. Paul's autobiographical catalog of imprisonments, beatings, and hardships.
4. 2 Corinthians 11:32-33. Paul recounts his escape from Damascus in a basket.
5. 2 Corinthians 12:7. The "thorn in the flesh" reference, unspecified but deeply personal.
6. Brown (1997), pp. 548-550. The abrupt shift at 2 Corinthians 10:1 suggests possible letter compilation.
7. Brown (1997), p. 550. The passage 2 Cor 6:14-7:1 interrupts the surrounding context and may be an interpolation.
8. Brown (1997), pp. 549-550. Chapters 8 and 9 may have been separate collection appeals.
9. Philippians 2:25-30. Epaphroditus's near-fatal illness and Paul's anxiety about him.
10. Brown (1997), p. 456. 1 Thessalonians is "almost certainly the oldest preserved Christian writing."
11. Brown (1997), pp. 503-506. Some scholars note the brevity of Philemon complicates independent verification, though authenticity is generally accepted.
12. Brown (1997), pp. 590-596. Surveys scholarly opinion on 2 Thessalonians, noting genuine division.
13. 2 Thessalonians 2:2. Warning against letters claiming "the day of the Lord has already come."
14. 2 Thessalonians 2:3-4. The "man of lawlessness" apocalyptic scenario unique to this letter.
15. 2 Thessalonians 2:15. Emphasis on holding to traditions delivered "by letter or by word of mouth."
16. Brown (1997), pp. 600-617. Detailed discussion of vocabulary, style, and theological arguments regarding Colossians authorship.
17. Lohse, Eduard. Colossians and Philemon. Hermeneia. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1971. The Christ hymn (Col 1:15-20) may be pre-Pauline liturgical material.
18. Colossians 2:8, 2:20-23. Vocabulary like "philosophy" (philosophia) appears nowhere else in Paul.
19. Brown (1997), pp. 610-611. The household code (Col 3:18-4:1) differs from Paul's earlier treatment of social roles.
20. Brown (1997), pp. 620-637. Brown estimates 70-80% of critical scholars reject Pauline authorship of Ephesians.
21. Lincoln, Andrew T. Ephesians. Word Biblical Commentary 42. Dallas: Word Books, 1990, pp. lx-lxiii. Ephesians 1:3-14 is one continuous sentence in Greek, unlike Paul's typical style.
22. Harrison, P.N. The Problem of the Pastoral Epistles. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1921. Foundational linguistic analysis arguing against Pauline authorship.
23. Ehrman, Bart D. Forgery and Counterforgery. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012, pp. 192-222. The detailed office qualifications (1 Tim 3:1-13) suggest later institutional development.
24. 1 Timothy 6:20. "Guard the deposit" (parathēkē) language suggests fixed tradition, unlike Paul's dynamic faith terminology.
25. Harrison (1921), pp. 84-86. The widow registration (1 Tim 5:9-16) reflects developed church organization.
26. Ehrman (2012), pp. 205-208. 2 Timothy's personal details (cloak, parchments) lead some to propose authentic fragments within a pseudonymous framework.
27. 2 Timothy 1:13-14. "Pattern of sound words" and "good deposit" language parallels 1 Timothy's formulation.
28. Harrison (1921), pp. 87-89. 2 Timothy 2:2 envisions four generations of teachers, suggesting post-apostolic context.
29. Harrison (1921), pp. 20-25. 306 words in the Pastorals (36%) appear nowhere else in the Pauline corpus.
30. Titus 1:5-9. Elder/overseer qualifications parallel 1 Timothy 3, suggesting common authorship of Pastorals.
31. Brown (1997), pp. 668-680. "Sound doctrine" emphasis across Titus 2:1-10 reflects concern with orthodoxy vs. heresy.
32. Titus 3:5-8. Salvation described as completed past event ("he saved us"), differing from Paul's "already/not yet" tension.

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