Last updated: February 2, 2026
This page presents the Old Testament passages concerning slavery, along with scholarly perspectives on their interpretation.
The Old Testament contains numerous laws and regulations concerning slavery. This page examines these texts and presents various scholarly interpretations of their significance. Scholars approach these passages from different perspectives, including historical-critical analysis, theological interpretation, and comparative ancient Near Eastern studies.
"As for your male and female slaves whom you may have: you may buy male and female slaves from among the nations that are around you. You may also buy from among the strangers who sojourn with you and their clans that are with you, who have been born in your land, and they may be your property. You may bequeath them to your sons after you to inherit as a possession forever. You may make slaves of them, but over your brothers the people of Israel you shall not rule, one over another ruthlessly."
This passage addresses the purchase of foreign slaves1. The text distinguishes between the treatment of Israelite servants (who had certain protections) and foreign slaves. Scholars interpret this distinction in various ways, including as reflecting ancient Near Eastern norms, as differing from other ancient practices, or as presenting concerns for modern readers.
"When you go out to war against your enemies, and the LORD your God gives them into your hand and you take them captive, and you see among the captives a beautiful woman, and you desire to take her to be your wife, and you bring her home to your house, she shall shave her head and pare her nails. And she shall take off the clothes in which she was captured and shall remain in your house and lament her father and her mother a full month. After that you may go in to her and be her husband, and she shall be your wife."
This law addresses the treatment of captive women2. Some scholars view the month of mourning as a provision compared to other ancient Near Eastern practices. Others note the lack of explicit consent in the text. Interpretation of this passage varies significantly among scholars.
"When a man sells his daughter as a slave, she shall not go out as the male slaves do. If she does not please her master, who has designated her for himself, then he shall let her be redeemed. He shall have no right to sell her to a foreign people, since he has broken faith with her."
This passage addresses the sale of daughters3. Scholars note the passage includes certain protections (redemption rights, prohibition on foreign sale). Interpretations vary on whether these regulations ameliorate or sanction the practice.
"When a man strikes his slave, male or female, with a rod and the slave dies under his hand, he shall be avenged. But if the slave survives a day or two, he is not to be avenged, for the slave is his money."
This law addresses physical punishment of slaves4. Some scholars note that punishment for killing a slave (the first part of the verse) was unusual in ancient Near Eastern law codes. Others focus on the property language in the second part. Interpretation of this passage remains debated.
"If his master gives him a wife and she bears him sons or daughters, the wife and her children shall be her master's, and he shall go out alone."
This text addresses the status of children born to slave women5. Scholars note this reflects ancient Near Eastern practices regarding inherited status.
"When you draw near to a city to fight against it, offer terms of peace to it. And if it responds to you peaceably and it opens to you, then all the people who are found in it shall do forced labor for you and shall serve you."
This passage addresses the treatment of conquered peoples who surrender6. Some scholars note that offering terms of peace before battle was relatively unusual in ancient warfare. Others focus on the forced labor requirement. Interpretations vary.
"Now therefore, kill every male among the little ones, and kill every woman who has known man by lying with him. But all the young girls who have not known man by lying with him keep alive for yourselves."
This text describes commands regarding the Midianites7. Scholars interpret this passage in various ways, including as prescriptive law, as descriptive narrative, or as reflecting ancient Near Eastern warfare conventions. This remains one of the most debated passages in biblical scholarship.
"And the LORD said to Moses, 'Take the count of the plunder that was taken, both of man and of beast, you and Eleazar the priest and the heads of the fathers' houses of the congregation, and divide the plunder into two parts between the warriors who went out to battle and all the congregation... From the people of Israel's half, Moses took one of every 50, both of persons and of beasts, and gave them to the Levites... And from the half belonging to the people of Israel, Moses took one drawn out of every fifty, of people and of beasts, and gave them to the Levites... And the tribute for the LORD from the sheep was 675. And the persons were 16,000, of which the LORD's tribute was 32 persons."
This passage describes the distribution of captives8. Scholars note the text includes human captives among the distributed items. Various interpretations exist regarding the significance of the "tribute" language and the role of the Levites.
| Israelite Servants | Foreign Slaves |
|---|---|
| Limited service of six years (Exodus 21:2) | Permanent slaves for life (Leviticus 25:44-46) |
| Released in the Jubilee year (Leviticus 25:40-41) | Not released in Jubilee; remained property (Leviticus 25:46) |
| Not to be treated ruthlessly (Leviticus 25:43) | No comparable protection from ruthless treatment |
| Could not be sold as slaves to foreigners (Leviticus 25:42) | Could be bought, sold, and inherited as property |
| Required to be released if physically injured (Exodus 21:26-27) | No comparable protection for injury |
The Torah establishes different regulations for Israelite servants and foreign slaves9. Scholars interpret this distinction in various ways, including as reflecting ancient covenantal concepts, kinship obligations, or ethnic differentiation.
The biblical regulations on slavery share many similarities with other ancient Near Eastern law codes10, including the Code of Hammurabi and Middle Assyrian Laws. The Torah regulates slavery with certain provisions (especially for Israelite servants), and these regulations align with the broader cultural norms of the ancient Near East.
Scholars note that the Old Testament regulates rather than prohibits slavery. Different interpreters draw different conclusions from this observation. Some argue this reflects divine accommodation to ancient cultural norms. Others view it as evidence of human rather than divine origins for these laws. Still others point to elements within the texts that differ from surrounding cultures.
The Old Testament contains regulations concerning slavery in Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. These texts address topics including:
Scholars interpret these passages from various perspectives:
The interpretation of these passages remains an active area of scholarly discussion.