When was Jesus born?
- Matthew 2:1 states that Jesus was born during the reign of Herod the Great.
- Luke 2:2 mentions that Jesus' birth occurred when Quirinius was governor of Syria.
When did Herod die?
Herod the Great died in 4 BCE.
- Lunar eclipse before death
Josephus records in Antiquities 17.6.4 that Herod died shortly after a lunar eclipse and before Passover. Multiple lunar eclipses occurred in this period: March 23, 5 BCE (partial), March 13, 4 BCE (partial), January 10, 1 BCE (total), and December 29, 1 BCE (partial). The March 13, 4 BCE eclipse best fits the timeline - it was visible from Jerusalem at 1:32 AM, reaching 36% coverage. Herod died between this eclipse and Passover (April 11), giving a 29-day window that aligns with Josephus' description of events between his death and burial.
- Length of reign
Josephus records in Antiquities 17.8.1 that Herod ruled for 37 years after being declared king by the Romans in 40 BCE, and 34 years after killing Antigonus and taking Jerusalem in 37 BCE. The Roman Senate appointed him king in late 40 BCE at the urging of Mark Antony and Octavian. He captured Jerusalem from Antigonus in the summer of 37 BCE after a six-month siege. Counting 37 years from late 40 BCE and 34 years from mid-37 BCE, both calculations independently confirm Herod's death in early 4 BCE. This timing is further supported by the start of his successors' reigns in 4 BCE and the fact that his funeral occurred before Passover of that year.
- Succession of sons
After Herod's death, his kingdom was divided among three sons: Archelaus became ethnarch of Judea, Samaria and Idumea in 4 BCE; Herod Antipas became tetrarch of Galilee and Perea in 4 BCE (confirmed by coins bearing his regnal dates); and Philip became tetrarch of territories east of Galilee in 4 BCE (Josephus records his 37-year reign ending with his death in 34 CE). Augustus ratified this division in Rome after reviewing Herod's will. Archelaus was later deposed in 6 CE for misrule, leading to direct Roman administration of Judea, while Antipas ruled until 39 CE and Philip until his death in 34 CE.
- Passover timing
Josephus records Herod died between the eclipse and Passover. In 4 BCE, this was a 29-day period from March 13 to April 11. During this time, Josephus describes several events: Herod's failed treatment at the warm baths of Callirrhoe, his return to Jericho, his imprisonment and ordered execution of Jewish nobles at the hippodrome, his attempted suicide, the release of the imprisoned nobles, his death 5 days after executing his son Antipater, the public announcement of his death, the funeral preparations lasting 7 days, the elaborate funeral procession from Jericho to Herodium (25 miles), and his burial before Passover began. The timing and sequence of these events fits well within the 29-day window between the March 13 eclipse and April 11 Passover.
When was Quirinius governor of Syria?
Quirinius served as governor of Syria from 6-7 CE.
- Appointment timing
Quirinius became governor after Rome deposed Herod Archelaus in 6 CE for mismanagement and brutality. Emperor Augustus appointed Quirinius as legate (governor) of Syria with explicit orders to liquidate Archelaus' estate and conduct a comprehensive census of Judea for tax purposes. According to Josephus' Antiquities 18.1-2, Quirinius arrived in Syria with Coponius, who would serve as the first prefect of the new Roman province of Judea. The census required registering all persons and property, including detailed land surveys and asset valuations. This transition marked the end of semi-independent Herodian rule in Judea and its reorganization as a directly-administered Roman province under the authority of the Syrian governor. The process sparked significant unrest, including armed resistance led by Judas the Galilean and Zadok the Pharisee, who viewed the census as a form of subjugation. Josephus notes that the High Priest Joazar eventually convinced most Jews to comply with the registration. The census records were used to establish new taxation rates and integrate Judea's financial administration into the wider Roman provincial system.
- Known governors of Syria
The sequence of Syrian governors is extensively documented through multiple sources: Marcus Titius (c. 13-7 BCE) served during Augustus' reorganization of the eastern provinces, attested by coins and inscriptions from Antioch. Gaius Sentius Saturninus (9-6 BCE) is recorded by Josephus as overseeing Syria during Herod's domestic troubles. Publius Quintilius Varus (6-4 BCE) is well-attested through Josephus and coins, and played a key role in the succession crisis after Herod's death. There was a brief gap before Gaius Caesar (1 BCE-4 CE), Augustus' adopted heir, took command with Marcus Lollius as his advisor. Lucius Volusius Saturninus (4-5 CE) is documented in both literary sources and inscriptions from Syria. Finally, Quirinius (6-7 CE) was appointed specifically to conduct the census after Archelaus' deposition, as recorded by Josephus, Tacitus, and the Lapis Tiburtinus inscription. The continuous sequence of governors is corroborated by coins, inscriptions, and multiple ancient historians, conclusively demonstrating there was no period during Herod's reign (which ended in 4 BCE) when Quirinius could have served as governor of Syria.
- Prior role
From 12-1 BCE, Quirinius served as governor (legatus Augusti pro praetore) of Galatia, where he conducted a census and reorganized the province's administration. During this time, he led successful military campaigns against the Homonadenses tribe in the Taurus Mountains of Cilicia, earning the ornamenta triumphalia (triumphal decorations) for his victories. The fragmentary Tiburtine inscription (discovered in 1764 near Rome) suggests he may have served as an imperial legate (legatus pro praetore) in Syria sometime between 12-2 BCE, but in a special military capacity focused on eastern defense rather than as the regular provincial governor. This military role would have been subordinate to the actual governor of Syria and focused specifically on commanding troops for the Homonadensian campaign. The inscription also confirms his later role as governor of Syria in 6-7 CE when he conducted the famous census. Archaeological evidence, including milestone markers and boundary stones from Pisidian Antioch, corroborate his administrative activities in Galatia during this earlier period.
- Census details
The census of 6 CE was a comprehensive property and population registration ordered by Emperor Augustus to establish tax rates for the newly-created Roman province of Judea. The census required detailed documentation of all land holdings, livestock, personal property, and household members. Property owners had to submit sworn declarations of their assets, while Roman surveyors measured and assessed land values. The process sparked significant unrest, including an armed revolt led by Judas the Galilean and Zadok the Pharisee, who viewed it as subjugation to Rome. The census is extensively documented by Josephus in Antiquities 18.1-2, who describes the appointment of Quirinius, the registration procedures, and the resulting rebellion. The Roman historian Cassius Dio also references it in his Roman History. Archaeological evidence includes census declarations on papyri from Egypt showing similar Roman registration practices. The census applied specifically to the territories of the deposed Herod Archelaus (Judea, Samaria, and Idumea) that were being converted to direct Roman rule. It did not extend to the neighboring tetrarchies of Herod Antipas (Galilee and Perea) or Philip (territories east of Galilee) which remained semi-autonomous client kingdoms. The collected data was used to establish new taxation rates and integrate Judea's financial administration into the wider Roman provincial system.