The Bible
Exploring the world's most influential book
The Bible
Exploring the world's most influential book
Authorship and Dating
Evidence that gives me reason to doubt the Bible.
Varves
Annual layers of sediment or gases, known as "varves," suggest that the earth is at least several million years old.
How many varves are in ice?
EPICA Dome C: 800,000 layers
Vostok core: 420,000 layers
GISP2 core: 110,000 layers
Law Dome: 50,000 layers
Dome Fuji: 720,000 layers
NGRIP: 123,000 layers
Talos Dome: 318,000 layers
Siple Dome: 100,000 layers
How many varves are in water?
Green River Formation: 6.5 million layers
Lake Bosumtwi: 1.1 million layers
Lake Van: 250,000 layers
Lake Suigetsu: 52,800 layers
Lake Malawi: 1.4 million layers
Lake Baikal: 12.5 million layers
Dead Sea: 200,000 layers
Lake Magadi: 800,000 layers
Lake Turkana: 350,000 layers
How do we verify these counts?
Multiple verification methods confirm layer counts: The layer chemistry matches known seasonal patterns, which are cross-validated with radiometric dating. Additionally, volcanic ash layers match historical records, different cores show matching patterns, and isotope ratios confirm the annual nature of the layers.
Trees
Tree rings provide data about annual growth rates, suggesting that the Earth is at least tens of thousands of years old.
What are the longest continuous chronologies?
German oak/pine: 12,460 continuous rings
Bristlecone pine: 8,836 continuous rings
Finnish pine: 7,652 continuous rings
Irish oak: 7,272 continuous rings
Siberian pine: 7,314 continuous rings
Japanese cedar: 4,873 continuous rings
How do we verify these ages?
Multiple verification methods confirm tree ring dates: Ring patterns match across overlapping specimens (crossdating), carbon-14 dating validates ring counts, chemical analysis confirms annual formation, and historical records match tree ring patterns. Climate records preserved in the rings also match other geological evidence.
Meteorites
Meteorites provide evidence for the age of our solar system.
What are the oldest meteorites?
Allende: 4.567 ±0.002 billion years
Canyon Diablo: 4.557 ±0.002 billion years
Murchison: 4.565 ±0.002 billion years
St. Marks: 4.563 ±0.003 billion years
Orgueil: 4.568 ±0.002 billion years
Efremovka: 4.565 ±0.002 billion years
Acfer 094: 4.565 ±0.002 billion years
How are meteorites dated?
Lead-Lead: Most precise method for old rocks
Uranium-Lead: Cross-validates lead-lead dates
Samarium-Neodymium: Independent check
Rubidium-Strontium: Additional verification
Rhenium-Osmium: Works well for iron meteorites
Moon Rocks
Moon rocks confirm the age of the Earth-Moon system.
What are the oldest moon rocks?
Genesis Rock: 4.51 ±0.01 billion years
Troctolite 76535: 4.48 ±0.02 billion years
FAN 60025: 4.42 ±0.02 billion years
Norite 78236: 4.43 ±0.02 billion years
Dunite 72417: 4.45 ±0.02 billion years
How many moon rocks have been collected?
Apollo 11: 21.6 kg of samples
Apollo 12: 34.3 kg of samples
Apollo 14: 42.3 kg of samples
Apollo 15: 77.3 kg of samples
Apollo 16: 95.7 kg of samples
Apollo 17: 110.5 kg of samples
Luna missions: 0.326 kg of samples
Science
The universe is about 13.8 billion years old.
Science
The universe is about 13.8 billion years old.
Cosmic radiation
The cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB) shows the universe is 13.8 billion years old.
What are the key measurements?
CMB temperature: 2.72548 K matches predicted cooling over 13.8 billion years
Hubble constant: Universe expansion rate indicates 13.799 ±0.021 billion years
Primordial elements: Measured ratios of hydrogen/helium match Big Bang predictions
Gravitational waves: Patterns show cosmic inflation 13.8 billion years ago
How were these measurements made?
WMAP satellite: Mapped CMB temperature to high precision
Planck satellite: Refined CMB measurements further
BICEP telescopes: Detected gravitational wave signatures
Spectroscopy: Measured precise ratios of primordial elements
Type 1a supernovae: Calibrated cosmic distance/expansion
Why are these measurements reliable?
Independent methods: Multiple techniques arrive at same age
Cross-validation: Different satellites confirm each other's data
Physical laws: Measurements follow well-tested physics
Precision: Modern instruments give extremely accurate readings
Light
We observe objects that are billions of light-years away, indicating a very old universe.
What are the longest measured distances?
HD1 galaxy: 13.5 billion light-years
GN-z11 galaxy: 13.4 billion light-years
GLASS-z13: 13.4 billion light-years
Sombrero Galaxy: 29.3 million light-years
Andromeda galaxy: 2.537 million light-years
Large Magellanic Cloud: 163,000 light-years
Small Magellanic Cloud: 200,000 light-years
Carina Nebula: 7,500 light-years
Orion Nebula: 1,344 light-years
How do we calculate these distances?
Parallax: Measuring apparent shift in star positions as Earth orbits
Cepheid variables: Stars with known relationship between brightness and period
Type 1a supernovae: Exploding stars with consistent peak brightness
Redshift: Light wavelength stretching indicates distance and speed
Angular size: Known objects appear smaller at greater distances
Surface brightness: Light dims predictably with distance
Stars
The oldest known stars are nearly as old as the universe itself.
What are the oldest stars?
BD+17°3248: 13.8 billion years
2MASS J18082002−5104378: 13.535 billion years
SMSS J031300.36−670839.3: 13.4 billion years
TOI-157: 12.82 ± 1.4 billion years
HD 140283: 12 ±0.05 billion years
How do we know their ages?
Spectroscopy: Chemical composition indicates age
Metallicity: Older stars have fewer heavy elements
Stellar evolution: Position on H-R diagram shows age
Nucleocosmochronology: Radioactive element decay
Kinematics: Orbital patterns indicate age
Where are they located?
BD+17°3248: 968 light-years
2MASS J18082002−5104378: 1,950 light-years
SMSS J031300.36−670839.3: 6,000 light-years
TOI-157: 1,181 light-years
HD 140283: 200.5 light-years
Hubble Constant
The expansion rate of the universe indicates its age.
What are the key measurements?
Planck satellite: 67.4 ±0.5 km/s/Mpc
SH0ES project: 73.2 ±1.3 km/s/Mpc
H0LiCOW: 73.3 ±1.8 km/s/Mpc
Carnegie-Chicago: 69.8 ±1.9 km/s/Mpc
CCHP: 69.6 ±1.9 km/s/Mpc
TRGB: 69.8 ±1.7 km/s/Mpc
How is it measured?
Cosmic distance ladder: Multiple methods calibrate each other
Parallax: Measures nearby star distances
Cepheid variables: Pulsating stars with known brightness
Type 1a supernovae: Standard candles for cosmic distances
Gravitational lensing: Light bending reveals distances
Surface brightness fluctuations: Galaxy brightness variations
What does this tell us?
Universe age: 13.799 ±0.021 billion years
Expansion rate: Space itself is expanding
Dark energy: Expansion is accelerating
Geometry: Universe is flat within 0.4%
Matter density: 31.5% of universe content
Dark energy density: 68.5% of universe content
Philosophy
Yes! Multiple independent lines of evidence confirm evolutionary theory.
Philosophy
Yes! Multiple independent lines of evidence confirm evolutionary theory.
Fossil Record
The fossil record shows many transitional species.
What are transitional fossils?
Transitional fossils show features between ancestral and descendant groups, mixing primitive and derived traits. They provide evidence for gradual evolution.
What transitional fossils exist?
There are hundreds of well-documented transitional fossils. Here are many notable examples, grouped by similarity:
Fish to Tetrapod Transition
Tiktaalik: Fish to tetrapod transition
Acanthostega: Fish with tetrapod features
Ventastega: Early tetrapod transition
Ichthyostega: Early tetrapod
Panderichthys: Fish with tetrapod-like features
Eusthenopteron: Lobe-finned fish ancestor
Dinosaur to Bird Transition
Archaeopteryx: Dinosaur to bird transition
Microraptor: Four-winged dinosaur
Sinosauropteryx: Feathered dinosaur
Velociraptor: Feathered dromaeosaurid
Anchiornis: Four-winged feathered dinosaur
Confuciusornis: Early beaked bird
Ichthyornis: Toothed seabird ancestor
Land Mammal to Whale Transition
Ambulocetus: Land mammal to whale transition
Pakicetus: Early whale ancestor
Rodhocetus: Whale ancestor with legs
Basilosaurus: Primitive whale with tiny legs
Maiacetus: Amphibious whale ancestor
Protocetid: Semi-aquatic whale ancestor
Kutchicetus: Small amphibious whale
Andrewsarchus: Early whale relative
Ape to Human Transition
Sahelanthropus: Earliest known hominin
Orrorin: Early bipedal hominin
Ardipithecus: Early hominin species
Australopithecus: Ape to human transition
Paranthropus: Robust australopithecine
Homo habilis: Early human ancestor
Homo erectus: Direct human ancestor
Homo heidelbergensis: Common ancestor of humans and Neanderthals
Homo antecessor: Early European hominin
Homo naledi: Recently discovered human relative
Reptile to Mammal Transition
Dimetrodon: Early synapsid leading to mammals
Thrinaxodon: Reptile to mammal transition
Morganucodon: Early mammaliaform
Cynognathus: Advanced cynodont
Probainognathus: Near-mammal cynodont
Kayentatherium: Early mammaliaform
Megazostrodon: Early mammal
Horse Evolution
Hyracotherium: Early horse ancestor
Mesohippus: Three-toed horse
Merychippus: Grazing horse ancestor
Pliohippus: Single-toed horse ancestor
How are fossils dated?
Fossils are dated by examining the surrounding rock layers, where the age of the rocks can provide context for the age of the fossils.
Carbon-14: Used for specimens up to 60,000 years old
Potassium-Argon: Used for specimens over 50,000 years old
Stratigraphy: Dating based on rock layer position
Biostratigraphy: Dating using index fossils
Magnetostratigraphy: Dating using magnetic field reversals
Fission Track: Dating using radiation damage in minerals
Thermoluminescence: Dating pottery and fired materials
Amino Acid: Dating organic materials through protein decay
DNA
Genetic evidence suggests common ancestry.
How similar is human DNA to other animals?
Chimpanzees: 98.8% identical
Bonobos: 98.7% identical
Gorillas: 98.4% identical
Orangutans: 97.6% identical
Gibbons: 96.9% identical
Macaques: 93.5% identical
Dogs: 88% identical
Mice: 85% identical
Chickens: 60% identical
Fruit Flies: 44% identical
What else suggests common ancestry?
Shared Pseudogenes: Identical broken genes found in related species, like the vitamin C gene disabled in all primates
Endogenous Retroviruses: Ancient viral DNA sequences found in identical locations across related species' genomes
Chromosome Fusion: Human chromosome 2 shows evidence of fusion of two ancestral chromosomes still separate in other apes
Gene Order: Related species share long stretches of genes in the same order on chromosomes
Transposons: "Jumping genes" found in identical locations across related species' genomes
Example: Vitamin C Gene
The GULO gene, which produces vitamin C, is broken in exactly the same way in all primates. This provides strong evidence for common ancestry:
The Mutation:
What: A deletion in exon 10 of the GULO gene
Who Has It: All primates (humans, chimps, gorillas, orangutans, macaques)
Who Doesn't: Most other mammals have a working version
Why This Matters:
The chance of this exact same mutation occurring independently in all primates is astronomically small - less than 1 in 10478. The only reasonable explanation is that all primates inherited this broken gene from a shared ancestor.
Example: Endogenous Retroviruses
Endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) are ancient viral DNA sequences that infected our ancestors and became permanently embedded in our genome:
The Evidence:
What: Over 200,000 ERV sequences in human DNA
Location: Found in identical positions in related species
Pattern: More shared ERVs = closer evolutionary relationship
Why This Matters:
Finding the exact same viral DNA sequences in the exact same locations across different species is like finding identical typos in different books - it shows they were copied from a common source. The chance of independent viral infections occurring at identical genome positions is effectively zero.
Human Origins
Multiple lines of evidence show humans evolved from earlier primates in Africa.
Fossil Evidence
Key Fossils:
Sahelanthropus tchadensis (7 million years ago)
Orrorin tugenensis (6 million years ago)
Ardipithecus ramidus (4.4 million years ago)
Australopithecus anamensis (4.2-3.9 million years ago)
Australopithecus afarensis (3.9-2.9 million years ago)
Australopithecus africanus (3.3-2.1 million years ago)
Australopithecus garhi (2.5 million years ago)
Paranthropus aethiopicus (2.7-2.3 million years ago)
Paranthropus boisei (2.3-1.2 million years ago)
Paranthropus robustus (1.8-1.2 million years ago)
Homo habilis (2.3-1.5 million years ago)
Homo rudolfensis (1.9 million years ago)
Homo ergaster (1.9-1.4 million years ago)
Homo erectus (2.0-0.1 million years ago)
Homo antecessor (1.2-0.8 million years ago)
Homo heidelbergensis (700,000-200,000 years ago)
Homo neanderthalensis (400,000-40,000 years ago)
Homo floresiensis (100,000-50,000 years ago)
Homo naledi (335,000-236,000 years ago)
Homo sapiens (300,000 years ago - present)
These fossils show a clear progression of features from ape-like to human-like characteristics over time.
Genetic Evidence
DNA Analysis Shows:
• Humans share 98.8% of DNA with chimpanzees
• Human chromosome 2 shows fusion of two ape chromosomes
• African populations have greatest genetic diversity
• All non-African populations descended from African ancestors
Genetic evidence indicates modern humans originated in Africa about 200,000 years ago.
Archaeological Evidence
Tool Development:
• Oldowan tools (2.6 million years ago)
• Acheulean handaxes (1.76 mya)
• Middle Stone Age tools (300,000 years ago)
• Upper Paleolithic revolution (50,000 years ago)
Archaeological evidence shows increasing technological sophistication over time, paralleling biological evolution.
History
Historical evidence helps us understand biblical context.
History
Historical evidence helps us understand biblical context.
Important Biblical Events
Historical evidence surrounding the stories of the Bible.
Origins of Yahweh
Archaeological and textual evidence about early Yahweh worship.
Early Evidence
• Earliest mention in Egyptian texts (c. 1400 BCE)
• Associated with Midianite/Kenite regions
• Gradual development from polytheism to monotheism
• Merger with El worship
• Kuntillet Ajrud inscriptions show regional variations
Archaeological Findings
Material evidence from ancient Israel and Judah.
Key Discoveries
• Tel Dan Stele mentions House of David
• Merneptah Stele earliest mention of Israel
• Ketef Hinnom silver scrolls with priestly blessing
• Khirbet Qeiyafa shows early Hebrew kingdom
• City of David excavations in Jerusalem