Anachronisms
Several anachronisms indicate post-Mosaic authorship:
- Deuteronomy 34:1-12 describes Moses' own death, burial and mourning period
- Uses phrase "to this day" about Moses' burial location (Deut 34:6)
- References no prophet like Moses "to this day" (Deut 34:10)
- Genesis 36:31 mentions Edomite kings "before any king reigned over Israelites," which assumes knowledge of an Israelite monarchy (c. 1050 BCE)
- Mentions Philistines (Exodus 13:17) who arrived c. 1200 BCE
The Philistines are confirmed to have existed around 1200 BC through archaeological finds like Mycenaean-style pottery and distinct urban centers, as well as Egyptian records such as Ramses III's Medinet Habu inscriptions.
- References city of "Dan" (Genesis 14:14) which was renamed from "Laish" long after Moses
Genesis 14:14 mentions the city of Dan, which was originally called Laish and renamed by the Danite tribe during the period of the Judges, as described in Judges 18:27–29. This renaming occurred centuries after Moses, suggesting the reference to "Dan" is an anachronism added by later editors to clarify the location for their audience.
- Uses term "Hebrew" as language designation which emerged much later
The term "Hebrew" (Ivri) in ancient texts referred to an ethnic or social identity, not a language, and only later became a language designation during the Second Temple and Rabbinic periods. Early Israelites spoke a dialect of Canaanite within the Northwest Semitic family, and using "Hebrew" to describe it before it emerged as a distinct language in the first millennium BCE is historically and linguistically anachronistic.
Multiple Sources
The Documentary Hypothesis proposes that the Pentateuch was compiled from four main source documents (J, E, D, and P) written by different authors over several centuries. These sources were eventually combined and edited into the final form of the Torah we have today, explaining the duplications, contradictions, and varying styles found throughout the text.
Different Divine Names
Different sections consistently use different names for God:
- Genesis 1:1-2:3 uses "Elohim" exclusively
- Genesis 2:4-3:24 uses "YHWH Elohim"
- Exodus 6:2-3 has God say he was known as "El Shaddai" to the patriarchs but not as "YHWH"
- The E source uses "Elohim" until Exodus 3
- The J source uses "YHWH" from the beginning
Duplicate Stories
Multiple versions of the same stories with different details:
- Two creation accounts (Genesis 1:1-2:3 and 2:4-25)
While some argue these are complementary accounts of the same event, they contain irreconcilable differences in creation order: Genesis 1 creates plants before humans, while Genesis 2:5-7 creates man before plants. Genesis 1 creates animals before humans, while Genesis 2:18-19 creates animals after man. Genesis 1 creates man and woman simultaneously, while Genesis 2:21-22 creates woman after man from his rib.
- Two flood narratives with different numbers of animals (Gen 6:19-20 vs 7:2-3)
- Three wife-sister stories (Gen 12:10-20, 20:1-18, 26:6-11)
- Two versions of the Covenant Code (Exodus 20-23 and 34)
The first version (Exodus 20-23) contains the Decalogue and detailed civil laws, while the second (Exodus 34) focuses more on ritual obligations. They differ in content, organization, and emphasis - Exodus 20-23 has extensive social legislation including protection of slaves, property laws, and judicial procedures, while Exodus 34 emphasizes religious festivals, firstborn dedication, and prohibitions against idolatry. The first version uses primarily casuistic ("if-then") legal formulations, while the second uses apodictic ("thou shalt/shalt not") commands. These differences suggest separate origins and authors.
- Two accounts of water from rock (Exodus 17:1-7 and Numbers 20:1-13)
- Duplicate naming stories (Beersheba in Gen 21:31 and 26:33)
- Two versions of Hagar's expulsion (Gen 16:1-14 and 21:8-21)
- Multiple explanations for names like Israel (Gen 32:28 and 35:10)
Language and Style
Linguistic evidence points to later authorship.
Late Hebrew Forms
The text contains Hebrew words and grammatical forms that developed long after Moses' time:
- Persian loanwords like "pardes" (paradise) in Song 4:13
- Aramaic loanwords like "dat" (law) in Deuteronomy 33:2
- Late form "ani" instead of early "anoki" for "I" in Leviticus
- Use of "hu" as feminine pronoun in Genesiswhich emerged much later
In Genesis 20:16 and 38:25, the pronoun "hu" (הוּא), typically masculine, is used in place of the expected feminine "hi" (הִיא) when referring to women (e.g., Sarah and Tamar). This usage reflects an archaic linguistic feature preserved from earlier stages of Hebrew, where "hu" functioned as a gender-neutral pronoun before the feminine form "hi" became standard.
- Late spelling of "Jerusalem" as "Yerushalayim" in Genesis 14:18
In Genesis 14:18, the spelling "Yerushalayim" (יְרוּשָׁלַיִם) is anachronistic, as the dual-form ending "-ayim" became standard only in later Hebrew, likely during the post-exilic or Second Temple period. Earlier texts and inscriptions, such as the Siloam Inscription (8th century BCE), consistently use the shorter form "Yerushalem" (יְרוּשָׁלֵם).
- Persian-period terms like "pitgam" (decree) in Genesis
- Late construct forms in Exodus and Leviticus
Second Temple Hebrew prefers lengthened vowel forms over earlier constructs with shorter vowels, as seen in Exodus 29:25, where "isheh" (אִשֶּׁה, "offering of fire") is used instead of the pre-exilic "esh" (אֵשׁ).
Jesus & Mosaic Authorship
Jesus believed in the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch.
New Testament References
- Jesus refers to "Moses' writings" (John 5:46-47)
- Jesus cites "Moses said" when quoting Exodus (Mark 7:10)
- Paul attributes Deuteronomy to Moses (Romans 10:5)
- The Pharisees refer to "the Law of Moses" (John 8:5)
Historical Jewish Sources
- Philo treats Moses as author of the Pentateuch
- Josephus attributes the first five books to Moses
- The Talmud considers Moses the author
- Dead Sea Scrolls reference "the book of Moses"