Dates
The dates of the Gospels provide ample time for oral tradition to develop before being written down. This suggests that the Gospels are not completely accurate in all that they record.
- Mark: 70-75 CE
Mark 13:1-2 predicts the detailed destruction of the Jerusalem Temple, a pivotal event that occurred in 70 CE, strongly suggesting the Gospel was written afterward when these details would have been known. The author's explanations of Jewish customs (Mark 7:3-4), the use of Latin loanwords (e.g., centurion, denarius), and errors in Palestinian geography, such as the impractical route from Tyre to Sidon and Gerasa's misplacement near the Sea of Galilee (Mark 5:1), indicate a non-Palestinian origin aimed at a Gentile audience, likely outside Judea. These geographical inaccuracies, including calling the Sea of Galilee a "sea" instead of a "lake," reflect an author with limited firsthand knowledge of the region, emphasizing theological rather than literal concerns. The text bears hallmarks of oral tradition, such as episodic storytelling and thematic organization, alongside theological developments that prioritize Jesus' suffering and messianic secrecy but lack the high Christology seen in later gospels like John. Together, these elements portray Mark as an early, contextually situated Gospel, written with a pastoral and evangelistic focus for a diverse, non-Jewish community navigating the aftermath of the Temple's destruction.
- Matthew: 80-90 CE
Matthew's heavy use of Mark as a source requires a post-70 CE date. The author's expanded birth narrative, developed Christology, and portrayal of Jesus as new Moses suggest later theological reflection. Matthew's hostile depiction of Pharisees reflects post-70 Jewish-Christian conflicts, particularly around the Council of Jamnia (~85 CE). The text shows awareness of the Temple's destruction (22:7), includes anti-Pharisaic polemic indicating the emergence of Rabbinic Judaism, and demonstrates institutional developments like baptismal formulas (28:19) and church discipline (18:15-20). The Greek translation of Hebrew Bible quotations via the Septuagint, rather than from Hebrew originals, suggests distance from Palestinian Jewish Christianity. The author's corrections of Mark's geographical errors and Aramaisms indicate a more Hellenized setting.
- Luke: 85-95 CE
Luke's dependence on Mark (dated 70-75 CE) provides a terminus post quem. The author's knowledge of the Temple's destruction is more detailed than Mark's, suggesting greater temporal distance from 70 CE. Luke-Acts shows awareness of Paul's letters but lacks knowledge of their collection (which occurred ~90-100 CE). The text reflects developed church structures, uses the term "bishop" (episkopos), and shows familiarity with Josephus' Antiquities (93-94 CE). The author's treatment of the Pharisees suggests writing after the Council of Jamnia (~85 CE). The persecution described reflects conditions of Domitian's reign (81-96 CE) rather than Nero's. Luke corrects Mark's Palestinian geography and adjusts his portrayal of the disciples, indicating later theological development. The sophisticated Greek and extensive use of the Septuagint suggest a thoroughly Hellenized environment of the late first century.
- John: 90-100 CE
John's late dating is evidenced by multiple factors: Its high Christology with developed Logos theology reflects late 1st century philosophical concepts. The text shows awareness of Jewish expulsion from synagogues (9:22, 12:42, 16:2) which occurred under the Birkat ha-Minim (~85-90 CE). The author's use of "the Jews" as opponents suggests writing after clear Jewish-Christian separation. The text demonstrates knowledge of other gospels but deliberately supplements them (e.g., no Last Supper institution, different chronology of Jesus' death). Its developed sacramental theology (John 3:5, 6:51-58), extended discourses replacing parables, and responses to early docetic teachings (1:14, 19:34-35) reflect late 1st century theological concerns. The sophisticated Greek composition, allegorical interpretations, and fusion of Palestinian tradition with Hellenistic thought indicate significant temporal and geographical distance from events. References to Peter's martyrdom (21:18-19, occurring ~64-68 CE) and the death of the Beloved Disciple (21:20-23) suggest a date when the first generation of witnesses had largely passed. The text's familiarity with multiple forms of early Christian worship and its assumption of established church structures point to the 90s CE.
Authorship
The authors of the Gospels are anonymous and likely not the apostles.
- Mark: Anonymous, later attributed to John Mark
Attribution to Mark first appears in Papias (c.125 CE), who claims Mark recorded Peter's preaching but "not in order." The text shows clear unfamiliarity with Palestinian geography - placing Gerasa by the Sea of Galilee (5:1), describing an impractical route from Tyre through Sidon to the Decapolis (7:31), and misidentifying the Lake of Gennesaret as a "sea." The author explains basic Jewish customs like handwashing (7:3-4) and Passover practices (14:12), uses Latin loanwords (centurion, denarius, legion), and includes awkward translations of Aramaic phrases (5:41, 7:34), indicating a non-eyewitness writing for Gentile readers outside Palestine. The Greek style is basic Koine with simple connecting phrases ("and," "immediately") and repetitive vocabulary, lacking the literary sophistication expected from someone educated in Jerusalem's Greek-speaking schools. The author mishandles Hebrew/Aramaic terms, showing limited knowledge of Semitic languages.
- Matthew: Anonymous, not written by the tax collector apostle
The author copies 80% of Mark's content verbatim and relies on the Greek Septuagint rather than Hebrew texts for Old Testament quotations. The sophisticated Greek rhetoric includes complex chiastic structures, extensive use of Jewish exegetical techniques like gezerah shavah, and careful deployment of particles like μέν...δέ that would be foreign to a Galilean tax collector. The author demonstrates intimate knowledge of events from 85-90 CE like the Birkat ha-Minim synagogue expulsion and shows clear influence from the Jewish-Christian conflicts following the Temple's destruction in 70 CE - decades after the historical Matthew would have died. The text's portrayal of Pharisees reflects the emergence of Rabbinic Judaism at Jamnia (c. 85 CE), and its developed baptismal formula (28:19) and ecclesiastical procedures (18:15-20) indicate a late first-century institutional setting incompatible with apostolic authorship.
- Luke: Anonymous, likely not Paul's companion
The author's portrayal of Paul contradicts Paul's own letters: Acts depicts Paul as accepting of Jewish law and ritual (Acts 21:17-26) while Paul strongly opposes these in Galatians 2:11-14. Acts shows Paul preaching first in synagogues (Acts 17:1-2) but Paul claims primacy to Gentiles (Galatians 1:16). The text contains major historical errors: Acts 5:36 places Theudas' revolt before Judas the Galilean though Josephus dates it to 44-46 CE, Acts 11:28 incorrectly dates Claudius' famine, and Acts 5:33-39 misrepresents Gamaliel's speech. The author lacks insider knowledge of Paul's ministry - omitting his conflict with Peter (Galatians 2:11-14), the Corinthian church problems (1-2 Corinthians), most of his suffering (2 Corinthians 11:23-27), and his theological emphasis on justification by faith. The "we" passages begin abruptly in Acts 16:10 without introducing this supposed companion. The sophisticated Greek style differs markedly from Paul's letters, and the speeches attributed to Paul show the author's rhetoric rather than Paul's. The text reflects conditions of 85-95 CE with developed church structures and responses to delayed parousia that a companion of Paul would not have known.
- John: Anonymous, likely not written by John the beloved disciple
The sophisticated Greek composition includes complex rhetorical devices like inclusio, chiasmus, and double entendre that indicate formal Hellenistic education. The text employs Platonic and Stoic philosophical concepts like the Logos doctrine, showing familiarity with Alexandrian philosophical traditions. The author uses the Septuagint rather than Hebrew texts, demonstrates knowledge of Greek philosophical terms like aletheia (truth) and kosmos (world), and constructs elaborate discourses unlike Jesus' simpler Synoptic parables. Multiple layers are evident: chapters 1-20 form a complete narrative while chapter 21 is a later addition, the prologue (1:1-18) shows different style and vocabulary, and passages like 7:53-8:11 are later insertions. The text contains internal contradictions like multiple "endings" (20:30-31 and 21:25). The beloved disciple appears only in anonymous third-person references (13:23, 19:26, 20:2, 21:7, 21:20), while 21:24 distinguishes between this figure who "testifies" and "we" who wrote the account. The author's detailed knowledge of late first-century synagogue practices, like the Birkat ha-Minim expulsion, places the writing decades after the beloved disciple's likely death.
Textual Development
Evidence for gradual development of texts:
- Long ending of Mark (16:9-20) absent from earliest manuscripts
Missing from Codex Sinaiticus (א), Codex Vaticanus (B), earliest Armenian, Georgian, and Ethiopic manuscripts, and noted as doubtful by Eusebius and Jerome. Different endings exist: the shorter ending, the longer canonical ending, and the Freer Logion. The vocabulary and style differ significantly from Mark's usual writing, using 17 non-Markan words. The passage summarizes resurrection appearances from other gospels.
- John 7:53-8:11 (woman caught in adultery) is later insertion
Absent from P66, P75, Codex Sinaiticus, Vaticanus, Alexandrinus, earliest Syriac, Coptic, Gothic versions. Some manuscripts place it after Luke 21:38 or John 21:25. Uses non-Johannine vocabulary and style with 14 words never used elsewhere by John. No Greek Church Father comments on this passage before the 12th century. Different versions exist with varying lengths and details.
- 1 John 5:7-8 Johannine Comma added in Middle Ages
First appears in 4th century Latin treatise Liber Apologeticus. Absent from all Greek manuscripts before 14th century. Missing from all ancient versions (Syriac, Coptic, Armenian, Ethiopic, Arabic, Slavonic). Not cited by any Greek fathers in Trinitarian controversies. Entered Latin Vulgate through Glossa Ordinaria. First Greek manuscript containing it (Codex Montfortianus) appears to be translation from Latin Vulgate.
- Luke 22:43-44 (Jesus' prayer for forgiveness) missing from early manuscripts
Absent from P75, Codex Sinaiticus, Vaticanus, Alexandrinus, and family 1 manuscripts. Some manuscripts mark it with asterisks/obeli indicating scribal doubt. Early Church Fathers like Clement, Origen, and Athanasius never mention it despite discussing Jesus' passion extensively. Different manuscript locations exist - some place it after Matthew 26:39. Vocabulary and style differ from Luke's usual writing.
- John 5:4 (angel stirring pool) absent from oldest copies
Missing from P66, P75, Codex Sinaiticus, Vaticanus, C, D, and early versions (Coptic, Syriac). Uses non-Johannine vocabulary like κατά καιρόν and ταραχή. Some manuscripts include only part of verse 3b, others add explanatory glosses. Tertullian, Origen, and Chrysostom show no knowledge of this verse despite discussing the pool of Bethesda.
- Mark 7:16, 9:44, 9:46 added in later manuscripts
Mark 7:16 absent from Codex Sinaiticus, Vaticanus, L, and early versions. 9:44,46 missing from P45, Sinaiticus, Vaticanus, C, L, W. These verses appear to be harmonizations with Mark 4:9/4:23 and 9:48. Different manuscript traditions show varying placements and wordings. The additions create a more regular pattern of Jesus' sayings but interrupt Mark's characteristic narrative flow.
- Matthew 6:13b (doxology) not in earliest versions
The doxology "For thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory, forever. Amen" is absent from earliest and best manuscripts including P45, Sinaiticus, Vaticanus, and family 1. Missing from early versions like Vulgate, Coptic, and original Syriac. Not cited by early church fathers like Tertullian, Origen, and Cyprian when discussing the Lord's Prayer. First appears in Didache (8:2) and Syrian Peshitta. Different manuscripts show varying forms - some omit "kingdom," others add "forever and ever." Likely added to liturgical use of prayer.
- Acts 8:37 (Ethiopian's confession) is later addition
Missing from P45, P74, Sinaiticus, Vaticanus, Alexandrinus, and early versions (Coptic, Syriac, Ethiopian). First appears in Irenaeus (c. 180). Different versions exist - some add "Jesus Christ is the Son of God," others include longer confessions. Western text adds baptismal formula. Verse appears to be early baptismal confession inserted into text. Uses non-Lukan vocabulary and interrupts narrative flow between verses 36 and 38.
- Romans 16:24 missing from earliest manuscripts
Absent from P46, P61, Sinaiticus, Vaticanus, Alexandrinus, and early versions. Some manuscripts place it after 16:27, others after 16:23. Appears to duplicate benediction in 16:20. Different manuscript traditions show varying forms of greeting. Uses non-Pauline vocabulary and style. Early church fathers like Origen and Jerome show no knowledge of this verse. Likely added to create liturgical ending when Romans 16 was read separately.
- Luke 23:34a (Jesus' prayer for forgiveness) likely later
The prayer "Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do" is absent from P75, Codex Vaticanus, Codex Bezae, and other early manuscripts. Some manuscripts mark it with asterisks/obeli. Shows varying positions in different manuscripts. Not cited by early fathers like Justin, Irenaeus, Tertullian when discussing Jesus' passion. Uses non-Lukan vocabulary. First secure patristic citation is by Irenaeus in late 2nd century.
- 1 Corinthians 14:34-35 may be later marginal gloss
These verses appear after 14:40 in Western manuscripts (D F G 88* a b d). Contradicts 11:5 where women pray/prophesy. Uses vocabulary found nowhere else in Paul's letters. Interrupts discussion of prophecy. Clement of Alexandria and Origen show no knowledge of these verses. Some manuscripts mark with asterisks. Tertullian first to cite in early 3rd century. Different manuscript traditions show varying placements and wordings.
- 2 Corinthians shows signs of being multiple letters combined
Abrupt transitions at 2:14, 6:14, and 10:1 suggest composite nature. Chapters 10-13 differ in tone and appear to be "severe letter" mentioned in 2:4. 6:14-7:1 interrupts context and uses non-Pauline vocabulary. P46 shows unusual chapter arrangement. Early church fathers like Clement and Polycarp quote from different sections as separate letters. Marcion's canon listed multiple Corinthian letters. Some manuscripts mark section breaks with special signs.
- Hebrews 13 appears to be later appendix
Chapter 13 shows different style and vocabulary from rest of letter. Contains personal references absent from main body. P46 and other early manuscripts mark clear break before chapter. Some ancient versions place doxology at 13:21 rather than 13:25. Uses terms like "Jesus Christ" instead of usual "Christ Jesus." Includes specific greetings unlike rest of letter's general address. Early church fathers like Clement of Rome quote only chapters 1-12.
- 3 John 15b missing from some early manuscripts
The greeting "Greet the friends by name" absent from P74, several early majuscules. Different manuscript traditions show varying forms - some add "the brothers," others "all the saints." Uses vocabulary not found elsewhere in Johannine letters. Some manuscripts place after verse 13 or 14. Not cited by early fathers like Clement of Alexandria and Tertullian when discussing 3 John. First clear citation in 4th century.
- Mark 15:28 absent from oldest manuscripts
Missing from Codex Sinaiticus, Vaticanus, Alexandrinus, and other early manuscripts. Appears to be harmonization with Luke 22:37. Different manuscripts place it after different verses. Uses non-Markan vocabulary and style. Not cited by early fathers like Justin Martyr and Origen when discussing crucifixion. Some manuscripts mark with asterisks/obeli. First appears in manuscripts from 5th century. Western text shows multiple variant readings.
Historical Issues
Historical discrepancies and anachronisms suggest that the gospels are not historically accurate accounts.
Contradictions
- Different genealogies in Matthew and Luke
Matthew 1:1-17 traces through Solomon with 41 generations, while Luke 3:23-38 goes through Nathan with 76 generations. Matthew starts with Abraham, Luke goes back to Adam. Key figures like Shealtiel and Zerubbabel appear in different positions.
- Varying accounts of Jesus' birth and infancy
Matthew has wise men, star, flight to Egypt; Luke has shepherds, manger, presentation in temple. Matthew places birth during Herod (d. 4 BCE), Luke during Quirinius census (6 CE). Different ancestral homes: Bethlehem (Matthew) vs Nazareth (Luke).
- Conflicting resurrection narratives
Accounts differ on: number of women at tomb (1-3+), what they saw (young man/men/angels), where Jesus appeared first (Galilee/Jerusalem), who saw him first (Mary/disciples), and sequence of appearances. Empty tomb absent from earliest account (1 Cor 15:3-8).
- Different dates for crucifixion (synoptics vs John)
Synoptics place Last Supper as Passover meal (Nisan 15) with crucifixion next day. John places crucifixion on Passover preparation day (Nisan 14) when lambs were slaughtered. Times of death also differ: third hour (Mark) vs sixth hour (John).
- Varying accounts of Paul's conversion
Acts gives three versions (9:1-19, 22:6-16, 26:12-18) with differences in companions' experience (hearing/not hearing voice, standing/falling), post-vision instructions, and timeline. Paul's own accounts (Gal 1:11-24, 1 Cor 15:8-9) omit Damascus road details.
Anachronisms
- Matthew's guards at tomb story reflects later apologetics
Only Matthew includes Roman guards at tomb (27:62-66, 28:11-15). Story addresses later Jewish claims that disciples stole body (28:13-15). Details like sealing tomb and bribing guards suggest later legendary development countering objections to resurrection.
- John's high Christology reflects later theological development
John's Jesus makes explicit divine claims ("I am" statements, 8:58, 10:30) absent from earlier gospels. Logos theology (1:1-18), preexistence (17:5), and emphasis on Jesus' divinity show sophisticated theological reflection. Terms like "only-begotten" (μονογενής) reflect later Christological debates.
- Developed church offices in pastoral epistles
1 Timothy and Titus show formal church hierarchy (bishops/presbyters/deacons) with specific qualifications (1 Tim 3:1-13, Titus 1:5-9). Terms like ἐπίσκοπος and πρεσβύτερος used technically. Concerns about false teachers and church order reflect 2nd century situation.
- Anti-Jewish polemic reflects post-70 CE tensions
Matthew's harsh criticism of Pharisees (ch 23), John's hostile "the Jews" (οἱ Ἰουδαῖοι) terminology, blood curse (Matt 27:25), and synagogue expulsion references (John 9:22, 12:42) reflect growing Jewish-Christian divide after temple destruction. Term ἀποσυνάγωγος only appears in John.
New Testament Manuscripts by Century
Number of surviving Greek New Testament manuscripts from each century.
Data retrieved on August 31, 2024 from New Testament Virtual Manuscript Room